c^V.  .^4tcr^ii}^  Cr^^iyAs^?!^ 


CORNELL   UNIVERSITY. 


SYLLABUS 


OF  A 


COURSE  OF  TWENTY=FOUR  LECTURES 


I  ON  THE 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE    DUR|NQ    THE 
NINETEENTH    CENTURY 


BY 


H.  nORSE  STEPHENS. 


ITHACA : 
ANDRUS  &  CHURCH. 


HKMRY  MORSE  STEPHEMS 


5151 15 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


LECTURES :  Page. 

I.  The  Consulate  in  France  and  the  Re-constitdtion  of  Ger- 
many,     I 

II.  The  Power  of  Napoleon  at  its  Height, 4 

III.  Europe  during  the  Ascendency  of  Napol-eon,, 8 

IV.  Overthrow  of  the  Power  of  Napoleon, ii 

V.  The  Congress  of  Vienna, 15 

VI.  The  Holy  Alliance, 19 

VII.  The  Eastern  Question  and  the  Independence  of  Greece,  23 

VIII.  The  Revolution  of  1830  in  France, 27 

IX.  The  Belgian  Insurrection, 30 

X.  Insurrection  and  Civil  War  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  ...  33 

XI.  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe, 36 

XII.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  France, 41 

XIII.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Italy, 45 

XIV.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Austria, 49 

XV.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Germany,        53 

XVI.  Europe  after  the  Revolutions  of  1848,  . 57 

XVII.  The  Crimean  War, 61 

XVIII.  The  Unity  of  Italy, 64 

XIX.  The  Overthrow  of  Austria, 68 

XX.  The  Re-constitution  of  Germany  and  Austria, 72 

XXI.  The  Franco-German  War, 77 

XXII.  The  German  Empire, 81 

XXIII.  Russians  Attempt  to  Solve  the  Eastern  Question,  ....  85 

XXIV.  The  Triple  Alliance, 89 

Appendices: 91-101 

i.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1801  to  1895.     The  Great 
Powers. 

ii.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1801  to  1895.     The  Lesser 

Powers, 

iii.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1801  to  1895.     Italy, 

iv.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1801  to  1895.     Germany. 


MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY, 

(nineteenth  century.) 


IvECTURB  L 


THB  CONSULATE  IN  FRANCE  AND  THE  RE-CONSTITUTION 
OF  GERMANY. 

The  government  of  the  Consulate  ;  its  policy  of  reconcilia- 
tion ;  many  e77tigrh  permitted  to  return  ;  complete  pacifica- 
tion of  Ira  Vendee  by  the  Treaty  of  Montlu9on  ;  suppression 
of  brigandage ;  restoration  of  internal  peace. 

The  financial  policy  of  the  Consulate  ;  the  work  of  Gau- 
din  ;  taxes  fairly  levied  and  collected  ;  corruption  punished  ; 
foundation  of  the  Bank  of  France. 

The  Consulate  and  legal  reform  ;  commissions  appointed 
to  draw  up  codes. 

The  Consulate  and  the  Catholic  Church  ;  Bonaparte's  ne- 
gotiations with  the  Papacy  ;  end  of  the  schism  which  had 
lasted  since  the  civil  constitution  was  proclaimed  in  1790  ; 
terms  of  the  Concordat  signed  by  Pope  Pius  VII  and  the  First 
Consul  Bonaparte  (15  July,  1801)  and  promulgated  (18  Apr., 
1802). 

The  Consulate  and  education  ;  Bonaparte's  attempt  to  es- 
tablish a  scheme  of  national  education. 

The  Consulate  and  the  internal  administration  of  France  ; 
formation  of  the  Prefectures  ;  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  or- 
ganized as  part  of  France. 

The  Consulate  and  the  colonies  of  France  ;  Bonaparte  de- 
sires to  restore  the  power  of  France  in  America  ;  he  obtains 
I^ouisiana  from  Spain  and  an  extension  of  French  Guiana 
from  Portugal ;  he  re-occupies  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique 
by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  ;  he  attacks  San  Domingo  ;  resis- 
tance of  Toussaint  L'Oiiverture. 


Constitutional  changes  made  during  the  Consulate  ;  effect 
of  the  Conspiracy  of  the  Infernal  Machine  (24  Sept.,  1800)  ; 
Bonaparte  declared,  after  an  appeal  to  the  Primary  Assem- 
blies, First  Consul  for  life  ;  he  is  enabled  to  nominate  a  suc- 
cessor. 

The  Constitutional  authorities  of  the  Consulate  ;  the  part 
played  by  the  Counsil  of  State,  the  Senate,  the  Tribunate, 
and  the  lyCgislative  Body  ;  the  National  I^ist  suppressed  and 
replaced  by  Electoral  Colleges. 

The  ministers  of  the  Consulate  ;  Talleyrand,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  Gaudin,  of  Finance,  Regnier,  of  Justice, 
Chaptal,  of  the  Interior,  Berthier,  of  War,  Decres,  of  the  Ma- 
rine, and  Fouche,  of  Police. 

The  re-constitution  of  Germany  ;  the  new  arrangements 
made  necessary  by  the  cession  to  France  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  and  by  the  proofs  that  had  been  given  during  the 
war  of  the  intrinsic  weaknCvSs  of  the  political  system  of  the 
Empire ;  the  new  arrangements  accepted  by  the  Imperial 
Diet  (25  Feb.,  1803)  ;  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  as  estab- 
lished by  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia,  practically  ceases  to  ex- 
ist. 

Changes  made  in  the  Colleges  of  the  Imperial  Diet ;  ( i ) 
the  College  of  Electors  increased  from  eight  electors,  three 
ecclesiastical  and  five  lay,  to  ten  electors,  one  ecclesiastical 
and  nine  lay  ;  the  archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Treves  lost 
their  electoral  dignity  owing  to  their  dominions  being  ab- 
sorbed into  France  ;  the  Archbishop  of  Mayence  continued  as 
an  elector  and  received  as  his  dominions  the  bishopric  of 
Ratisbon,  the  principality  of  Aschaffenburg  and  the  county 
of  Wetzlar  ;  the  nine  lay  electors  were  the  five  who  had  for- 
merly held  that  dignity,  Bohemia,  Brandenburg,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  and  Hanover,  w4th  four  new  electors,  the  Margrave  of 
Baden,  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  the  lyandgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  and  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand,  formerly  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  who  was  made  Elector  of  Salzburg  ;  (2)  College 
of  Princes  ;  owing  to  the  secularization  of  the  Catholic  bish- 
oprics and  monasteries  this  college  was  greatly  reduced  in 


—  3  — 

numbers  and  consisted  mainly  of  Protestant  princes  ;  (3) 
College  of  Free  Cities  ;  this  college  would  have  been  entirely 
abolished  but  for  the  intervention  of  France  ;  as  it  was,  only 
six  free  cities  were  maintained  out  of  fifty-two,  namely,  Augs- 
burg, Bremen,  Frank fort-on- the- Main,  Hamburg,  lyiibeck 
and  Nuremberg  ;  these  changes  in  the  Imperial  Diet  deprived 
the  Catholics,  and  Austria,  the  chief  Catholic  power,  of  their 
predominance. 

The  secularization  of  the  ecclesiastical  states ;  this  step, 
which  had  been  suggested  by  France  at  Basle  and  by  Bona- 
parte at  I^eoben,  was  nominally  undertaken  to  compensate 
those  princes  of  the  Empire  who  had  lost  territory  by  the 
cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France  ;  the  princes 
who  profited  most  were,  however,  those  who  were  already 
powerful ;  thus  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  and 
Hanover  all  received  important  accessions  of  territory  making 
them  compact  and  populous  states  ;  Austria  received  only 
two  small  bishoprics,  Brixen  and  Trent,  but  two  Austrian 
princes,  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  and  the  Duke  of  Modena 
received  the  German  states  of  Salzburg  and  the  Breisgau  in 
compensation  for  the  loss  of  their  Italian  principalities  ;  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  formerly  Stadtholder  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands, received  the  bishopric  of  Fulda. 

Effect  of  these  sweeping  changes  destroying  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  and  building  up  .strong  German  states,  upon 
the  policy  and  condition  of  Germany. 

The  re-constitution  of  Switzerland  ;  Bonaparte  interferes 
in  Swiss  politics  ;  by  the  Act  of  Mediation  (19  Feb.,  1803), 
he  restores  federal  government  but  maintains  the  abolition  of 
feudalism  and  other  reforms  made  by  the  Helvetian  Repub- 
lic ;  to  the  thirteen  old  cantons — six  democratic,  Appenzell, 
Glarus,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Uri,  and  Zug,  and  seven 
oligarchical — Basle,  Berne,  Freiburg,  lyucerne,  Schaffhausen, 
Soleure,  and  Zurich,  he  added  six  new  cantons — Vaud,  Aar- 
gau,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  Saint-Gall,  and  the  Grisons  ;  he  reg- 
ulated the  relations  between  the  federal  and  cantonal  govern- 
ments, and  was  declared  Mediator  of  the  Confederation  of 
Switzerland. 


—  4  — 

Authorities :  A  brief  account  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  re  con- 
stitution of  Germany  in  Switzerland  is  given  in  Morse  Stephens,  Eu- 
ropean History,  1789-1815,  chap.  vii.  For  the  Consulate,  see  Thiers, 
Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1' Empire  ;  Thibaudeatif Mimones  sur  le 
Consulat  and,  Le  Consulat  et  I'Empire,  and  for  the  policy  of  Napo- 
leon, the  various  lives  and  histories,  particularly  Lanfrey  and  Taine. 
The  Memoirs  most  valuable  for  the  subjects  treated  in  this  lecture  are 
those  of  Chaptal,  Lucien  Bofiaparte,  Talleyrand,  and  Gaudin  ;  for  the 
Concordat  consult  the  valuable  work  of  D' Haussonville,  Documents 
in^dits  sur  le  Concordat.  For  the  re-constitution  of  Germany,  see 
^Rarnbaiid,  Les  Fran^ais  sur  le  Rhin,  Hdusser,  Deutsche  Geschichte 
vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  Oncken,  Das  Zeitalter  der  Revolu- 
tion, des  Kaiserreichs  und  der  Befreiungskriege,  Beer,  Zehn  JahreCEs- 
terreichischer  Politik,  1801-1810,  and  Heigel,  Deutsche  Geschichte 
vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen. 


I.ECTURE    II. 


THE  POWER  OF  NAPOLEON  AT  ITS  HEIGHT. 

Recommencement  of  war  between  France  and  England, 
(18  May,  1803)  ;  causes  of  the  war  ;  the  points  left  unsettled 
by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  ;  the  question  of  Malta,  which  the 
English  refused  to  surrender  ;  the  interference  of  the  First 
Consul  in  Switzerland  and  his  annexation  of  Piedmont 
(11  Sept.,  1802)  regarded  as  evidences  of  the  desire  of 
France  further  to  disturb  the  peace  of  Europe  ;  Bonaparte's 
wrath  at  the  libels  published  upon  him  in  England  ;  the 
trial  of  Peltier  ;  the  embassy  of  Whitworth  to  Paris  ;  the 
English  seize  French  ships  and  Bonaparte  in  reprisal  arrests 
all  Englishmen  travelling  in  France  and  occupies  Hanover. 

Formation  of  the  Grande  Armee  ;  Bonaparte's  genius  for 
military  organization  ;  he  forms  the  camp  of  Boulogne  and 
prepares  to  invade  England. 

Difficulties  of  Bonaparte's  position  ;  the  plot  of  Pichegru, 
Georges  Cadoudal,  and  others  against  his   life  ;    arrest  and 


CuUA^et.lfoL  de.  Co^hJi^^^e-uz^ 


trtUtt.  ^h^fdU  "uLvC^rs  LL^-i'fi<  oU  i-j^i  ^  iJ^'i 


—  5  — 

execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien  (21  March,  1804)  ;  Bona- 
parte offered  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French  by  the 
Senate  (18  May,  1804)  ;  the  offer  ratified  by  the  French  peo- 
ple in  their  primary  assemblies  ;  coronation  of  Bonaparte  as 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  (2  Dec,  1804)  ;  also  crowned  King 
of  Italy  at  Milan  (20  May,  1805). 

The  institutions  of  the  Empire  ;  the  Imperial  Court ;  in- 
creased importance  of  the  Senate  and  Council  of  State ; 
highly  centralized  form  of  administration  established  under 
the  Empire. 

In  the  year  in  which  Napoleon  became  Emperor  of  the 
French  the  Emperor  Francis  II  declared  the  Austrian  do- 
minions an  hereditary  empire  (11  Aug.,  1804),  and  takes  the 
title  of  Emperor  of  Austria  (7  Dec). 

Position  of  affairs  in  England  at  the  recommencement  of 
war  w^ith  France  ;  Addington ,  who  had  made  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens,  succeeded  as  prime  minister  by  Pitt,  who  advocates 
a  vigorous  foreign  policy  (1804). 

Pitt's  endeavors  to  form  a  third  continental  coalition 
against  Napoleon  ;  Frederick  William  III  persists  in  main- 
taining the  strict  neutrality,  by  which  Prussia  had  gained  so 
much  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  I  of  Russia  personally  admired 
Napoleon,  but  his  court  and  people  pressed  him  to  side  with 
England  ;  the  execution  of  d'Enghien  and  Napoleon's  treat- 
ment of  his  ambassador  further  impelled  Alexander  to  join 
the  coalition  against  France  ;  the  Emperor  Francis  gladly 
entered  the  coalition  ;  Spain  was  the  close  ally  of  Napoleon, 
while  of  smaller  countries,  Sweden,  under  Gustavus  IV,  the 
Two  Sicilies,  and  Portugal  w^ere  favorable  to  the  coalition, 
and  DennTark,  to  Napoleon. 

The  campaign  of  1805  ;  Napoleon  unable  to  attempt  the 
invasion  of  England  because  the  French  fleet  cannot  com- 
mand the  Channel ;  the  scheme  of  Napoleon  frustrated  by 
the  conduct  of  Admiral  Villeneuve  ;  Nelson  in  command  of 
the  Channel  ;  Sir  Robert  Calder's  action  with  the  French 
fleet  (25  July)  ;  the  Austrians  under  Mack  before  the  de- 
claration of  war  occupy  Ulm  (Sept.);  Napoleon  despairing 


of  invading  England  breaks  up  his  camp  at  Boulogne  and  in- 
vades Germany;  Mack  surrenders  at  Ulm  (20  Oct.);  vic- 
tory of  Trafalgar  won  by  Nelson  over  the  French  and 
Spanish  fleets  (21  Oct.);  Napoleon  occupies  Vienna;  a 
Russian  army  joins  the  Austrians  ;  Napoleon  defeats  the 
Austrians  and  Russians  at  Austerlitz  (2  Dec). 

The  results  of  AusteVlitz  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg 
(26  Dec.)  Austria  cedes  Venice  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy, 
Istria  and  Dalmatia  to  Napoleon,  who  governs  them  under 
Marmont  as  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and  the  Tyrol  to  Bava- 
ria ;  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  given  the  title 
of  King,  and  the  Elector  of  Baden  that  of  Grand  Duke  ; 
formation  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  ;  death  of  Pitt 
(23  Jan.,  1806). 

The  campaign  of  1806  ;  the  attitude  of  Prussia  to  Napoleon, 
and  of  Napoleon  to  Prussia  ;  influence  of  Queen  Louisa  upon 
Frederick  William  III  ;  the  Prussians  prepare  for  war  ;  the 
Prussians  defeated  by  Napoleon  at  Jena  and  by  Davout  at 
Auerstadt  (14  Oct.)  ;  Napoleon  occupies  Berlin  (25  Oct.)  ; 
the  French  invade  Poland,  occupy  Warsaw  (15  Dec.)  and 
go  into  winter  quarters  on  the  Russian  frontier. 

The  campaign  of  1807  ;  battle  of  Eylau  (8  Feb.)  ;  close 
alliance  formed  between  the  Tsar  Alexander  and  Frederick 
William  III  of  Prussia  by  the  Treaty  of  Bartenstein  (April); 
surrender  of  Dantzig  to  the  French  (24  May)  ;  Napoleon 
defeats  the  Russians  at  Friedland  (14  June). 

Interview  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander  at  Tilsit 
(25  June,  1807),  followed  by  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (7  July, 
1807)  ;  by  this  treaty  Russia  ceded  the  Ionian  Islands  to 
France  ;  Napoleon  promised  not  to  restore  the  independence 
of  Poland,  but  created  the  part  of  Poland  which  Prussia  had 
received  in  the  different  partitions  into  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Warsaw  with  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  whom  he  gave  the 
title  of  king,  as  Grand  Duke  ;  Napoleon  suggested  to  Alex- 
ander the  resurrection  of  the  Empires  of  the  East  and  the 
West  and  advised  him  to  extend  his  dominions  at  the  cost  of 
Sweden  and  Turkey. 


—  7  — 

After  much  hesitation,  Napoleon  makes  peace  with  Prus- 
sia after  depriving  Frederick  WilHam  III  of  Polish  Prussia 
and  of  all  Prussian  territory  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe. 

After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  Napoleon  recognizes  that  his 
sole  remaining  enemy  is  England  ;  progress  of  the  war  with 
England  after  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  ;  complete  triumph  of 
the  English  fleet  and  blockade  of  the  French  coasts  ;  the 
English  occupy  Sicily,  to  which  island  Ferdinand  IV  had 
fled  before  a  French  army  in  1805,  and  defeat  General  Rey- 
nier  at  Maida  (3  July,  1806)  ;  the  English  re-occupy  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  which  had  been  surrendered  to  the 
Dutch  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 

Napoleon,  being  unable  to  attack  England  directly,  re- 
solves to  ruin  English  commerce  ;  he  issues  the  Berlin  De- 
cree (21  Nov.,  1806)  declaring  the  British  Islands  in  a  state 
of  blockade,  followed  by  the  Milan  Decree,  declaring  any 
ship  touching  at  a  British  port  lawful  prize  ;  by  the  Treaty 
of  Tilsit,  Russia  agrees  to  the  continental  blockade  ;  effect  of 
the  blockade  on  English  commerce. 

The  Treaty  of  Tilsit  marks  the  zenith  of  Napoleon's 
power,  but  his  splendour  is  most  apparent  during  the  Con- 
gress of  Erfurt  (Sept.,  1808). 

Authorities  :  For  the  history  of  the  Empire,  see  Morse  Stephens, 
Thiers,  Thibaudeau,  and  Lanfrey  cited  under  Lecture  I ;  for  the 
personality  of  Napoleon,  Taine  Napoleon,  Ltvy  Napoleon  intime, 
Masson  Napoleon  et  les  Veva.xn^s,'^ Bourrienne  Memoirs,  ^Meneval 
Napoleon  i*'"';  for  the  outbreak  of  war  with  England,  see  Oscar 
Browning ,  Despatches  of  Lord  Whitworth  ;  for  the  relations  between 
Napoleon  and  the  Tsar  Alexander,  s^e  Vandal,  Alexander  i^"^  et  Napo- 
leon, dnd  Tatischeff,  Napoleon  et  le  Tsar  Alexandre  d'apr^s  des  Docu- 
ments inedits  ;  for  the  campaigns  of  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and  Friedland, 
see  the  elaborate  works  oi  Jo  mini,  and  Mathieu  Dumas,  with  Mar- 
bot,  Memoirs,  2i\\(rThiebaidt,  Souvenirs,  and  the  numerous  lives  of  the 
marshals  and  generals  of  Napoleon  ;  for  the  Imperial  Court,  see 
^ Madame de  Rhmisat,  Memoirs  ;  and,  as  the  primary  authority  for  the 
whole  period,  the  Correspondence  of  Napoleon. 


IvKCTURB  III. 


EUROPE  DURING  THE   ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOIvEON. 

Napoleon  after  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  sweeps  away  the  last 
relics  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  re-organizes  Germany  ; 
under  his  system  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  of  which 
he  was  entitled  the  Protector,  became  the  chief  power  of 
Germany  ;  it  consisted  of  thirty-two  reigning  princes  ;  its 
population  of  20,000,000  of  Germans  was  bound  to  contri- 
bute 150,000  soldiers  to  the  army  of  Napoleon  ;  and  its  policy 
was  conducted  by  a  Diet  sitting  at  Frankfort,  composed  of  two 
colleges,  the  College  of  Kings,  and  the  College  of  Princes. 

The  four  kingdoms  in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine 
were  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Westphalia,  and  Saxony  ;  the 
Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  ally  their  families  with 
that  of  Napoleon  and  receive  their  reward  in  extension  of 
territory  ;  the  King  of  Saxony  is  made  Grand  Duke  of  War- 
saw, and  is  included  in  the  Confederation  from  the  import- 
ance of  his  geographical  position  between  Austria,  Prussia 
and  Russia  ;  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  created  by  Napo- 
leon from  the  dominions  of  Prussia  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe, 
with  Hesse-Cassel,  Brunswick,  part  of  Hanover,  etc.,  was 
conferred  on  Napoleon's  youngest  brother,  Jerome  Bonaparte. 

The  College  of  Princes  consisted  of  the  five  Grand 
Duchies  of  Baden,  of  Hesse- Darmstadt,  of  Berg,  created  by 
Napoleon  and  conferred  by  him  on  his  brother-in-law, 
Joachim  Murat,  of  Frankfort,  conferred  on  Dalberg,  formerl}^ 
Archbishop  Elector  of  Mayence,  and  of  Wiirtzburg,  con- 
ferred on  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand,  formerly  ruler  of  Tus- 
cany, and  of  twenty-three  princes  whose  principalities  were 
of  moderate  extent. 

Effect  of  the  new  organization  in  Germany  ;  the  French 
system  of  centralized  administration  and  of  military  con- 
scription everywhere  introduced  ;  serfdom,  and  other  feudal 
abuses  abolished  ;  the  codified  law  of  France  introduced  into 
Westphalia  and  Berg  ;    the  Knights  of  the  Empire  deprived 


of  their  sovereign  rights  ;  the  petty  dukes,  counts,  and 
princes,  whose  territories  lay  within  those  of  the  reigning 
princes  were  mediatized,  that  is  to  say,  lost  their  immediate 
sovereignty  while  retaining  their  titles  and  rank  as  a  class  of 
privileged  aristocracy. 

Effect  of  these  measures  ;  Germany  becomes  a  confedera- 
tion of  more  or  less  powerful  states  instead  of  a  collection  of 
petty  feudal  principalities. 

Napoleon's  Italian  policy  ;  he  appoints  his  step-son,  Eugene 
de  Beauharnais,  viceroy  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  which  com- 
prised the  former  Cisalpine  Republic  with  the  addition,  after 
the  Treaty  of  Pressburg,  of  Venice  ;  Napoleon  kept  Pied- 
mont as  part  of  the  French  dominions,  and  annexed  the 
Ligurian  Republic,  Parma,  Etruria  or  Tuscany,  and  event- 
ually in  18.10,  Rome,  directl}^  to  France,  giving^  his  sister 
Elisa  the  title  of  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany  and  Duchess  of 
Lucca,  and  his  sister  Pauline  that  of  Duchess  of  Guastalla ; 
the  relations  of  Napoleon  with  the  Pope  ;  arrest  of  Pius  VII 
(6  July,  1809)  ;  the  kingdom  of  Naples  conferred  upon  Na- 
poleon's brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  in  i8a6  and  on  Muratin 
1808;  great  reforms  accomplished  in  Italy,  but  failure  of 
Napoleon  to  recognize  the  principle  of  nationality. 

Napoleon  and  Holland  ;  changes  in  the  character  of  the 
Batavian  Republic  ;  lyouis  Bonaparte  made  King  of  Holland 
in  1 806  ;  dislike  of  the  Dutch  for  the  continental  blockade  ; 
Napoleon  annexes  Holland  to  his  dominions  in  18 10. 

Denmark  during  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon;  Napoleon's 
scheme  for  seizing  the  Danish  fleet ;  the  English,  hearing  of 
this  scheme,  bombard  Copenhagen  and  seize  the  Danish  fleet 
themselves  (Sept.  1807)  ;  friendship  of  Frederick  VI  of 
Denmark  for  Napoleon. 

Sweden  during  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon  ;  Gustavus 
IV,  the  sworn  enemy  of  Napoleon  and  ally  of  England  ; 
after  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  the  French  under  Brune  occupy 
Swedish  Pomerania  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  conquers  Finland 
(1808);  insanity  of  Gustavus  IV;  he  attacks  Denmark; 
he  is  dethroned  (29  March)  and  his  uncle,  the  former  regent* 


lO  — 

made  king  (lo  May,  1809)  ;  Bernadotte,  one  of  Napoleon's 
marshals,  elected  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  and  heir  to  the 
throne  (5  Nov.,  18 10). 

The  Turks  during  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon  ;  the  Sul- 
tan Selim  III  refused  to  enter  Pitt's  coalition  against 
Napoleon  (1805),  and  an  English  expedition  under  Duck- 
worth was  sent  against  him  (1807)  ;  overthrow  and 
assassination  of  Selim  (21  July,  1807)  ;  after  an  interval. 
Mahmud  II  becomes  Sultan  (July,  1808)  ;  his  vigor  and 
ability  ;  he  is  inclined  to  the  side  of  France,  but  dislikes  the 
establishment  of  the  French  in  the  lUyrian  provinces  ;  the 
Tsar  Alexander  attacks  the  Turks  (1809);  the  Russians 
occupy  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (18 10),  and  cross  the 
Danube  (1811). 

The  greatest  extension  of  Napoleon's  empire  attained  by 
the  annexation  of  the  districts  along  the  northern  coasts  of 
Germany  from  the  borders  of  Holland  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Weser,  including  Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Liibeck,  (13  Dec, 
18 10)  ;  this  annexation  caused  by  the  difficulty  of  main- 
taining the  continental  blockade  ;  at  this  time  the  French 
dominions  were  divided  into  130  departments  extending 
from  Rome  to  lytibeck  ;  the  organization  and  administration 
of  these  departments. 

Napoleon's  administration  w^hen  at  the  height  of  his 
power  ;  excellence  of  his  civil  service  ;  his  ministers  and  the 
Council  of  State;  suppression  of  the  Tribunate  (1808)  ; 
growing  importance  of  the  police  department  ;  organization 
of  the  army,  and  services  of  Clarke,  Minister  of  War ; 
Napoleon's  legal  reforms  ;  the  codes  ;  his  financial  reforms  ; 
his  reforms  in  education  ;  the  formation  of  the  University 
of  France  (1811). 

Napoleon's  belief  in  the  hereditary  principle  ;  his  new 
nobility  ;  his  desire  for  an  heir  ;  he  resolves  to  divorce  his 
wife,  the  Empress  Josephine. 

Failure  of  Napoleon  to  appreciate  the  forces  working 
against  him  at  the  height  of  his  power  ;  he  had  failed  to 
ruin  England  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts  ;  he  had  roused  the 


rw^..  Wfj<^  i'?>V/^'?J  5e^itun^^/^i'^;  5Bi   K^-Tu'^  ^  Ui^ite^i^  u^^,^  Ud- ' 


lu^  U  Ufvi  lit-  ^-^  !i^^/,AUe.. 


II 


national  spirit,  which  had  made  France  so  great,  against  him 
in  Spain  and  in  Germany  ;  the  Grande  Armee,  which  had 
won  his  victories,  was  being  destroyed,  and  the  vacancies  in 
its  ranks  filled  by  foreigners  and  young  French  conscripts. 

Authorities  :  See  the  books  cited  under  Lecture  II,  with  Rambaud, 
La  Domination   fran^aise  en  All eniagn efBea ulieu-Margon nay,  Karl_ 
von    Dalberg  und   seine  Zeit,  Kleinsch midt,  Gescliichte  des  Konig- 
reichs  Westfalen,  DuCasse,  Memoires  et  correspondance  du  Roi  Je- 
rome, and  Goecke,  Das  GrossherzogthumBergunter  Joachim  Murat,  etc, 


J^Jh  ^  UU^. 


I.ECTURK   IV 


OVERTHROW  OF  THE  POWER  OF  NAPOLEON. 

The  struggle  between  England  and  Napoleon  ;  the  policies 
represented  by  Castlereagh  and  Canning,  the  former  'desiring 
to  raise  national  insurrections  against  Napoleon,  the  4-atter  to 
form  coalitions  and  to  act  directly  against  the  French  with  an 
English  army  ;  duel  between  Castlereagh  and  Canning 
(1809)  ;  lyord  Wellesley  becomes  director  of  English  foreign 
policy  (1809-18 12)  ;  the  English  take  the  remaining  coloni- 
al possessions  of  France  and  Holland,  Martinique  and  the 
Mauritius  (1809),  Guadeloupe  (1810),  and  Java  (181 1). 

Napoleon  resolves  to  attack  Portugal,  because  the  Prince- 
Regent  declined  to  join  in  the  continental  blockade  ;  by  the 
Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  with  Spain  (29  Oct.,  1807)  he  ar- 
ranges for  the  division  of  Portugal  ;  a  French  army  under 
Junot  invades  Portugal ;  the  Prince- Regent  escapes  to  Brazil ; 
Junot  enters  Lisbon  (20  Nov.,  1807),  occupies  the  whole  of 
Portugal,  and  declares  that  the  House  of  Braganza  has  ceased 
to  reign  ( I  Feb.,  1808 J. 

Napoleon's  interference  in  the  affairs  in  Spain  ;  the  people 
of  Madrid  attack  Godoy,  the  Queen's  lover,  and  support 
Prince  Ferdinand,  the  heir  to  the  throne  ;  the  royal  family  of 


Spain  appeals  to  Napoleon  and  proceeds  to  France  ;  Charles 
IV  cedes  his  throne  to  Napoleon  who  proclaims  his  brother 
Joseph  king-  of  Spain  (6  June,  1806)  ;  a  French  army  enters 
Spain  to  support  Joseph  and  occupies  Madrid  ;  the  Spaniards 
rise  in  insurrection  ;  18,000  French  soldiers  surrender  to  the 
Spaniards  at  Baylen  (20  July,  1808)  ;  the  English  ministry 
supports  the  Spanish  insurgents  with  money  and  arms. 

The  Portuguese  rise  in  insurrection  against  the  French  * 
the  Knglish  ministry  send  an  army  to  their  help  under  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley,  who  wins  the  battles  of  Roriga  and  Vimei- 
ro  (17-21  Aug.,  1808)  ;  by  the  Convention  of  Cintra  (30 
Aug.)  the  French  under  Junot  agree  to  evacuate  Portugal. 

Napoleon  in  person  invades  Spain,  and  occupies  Madrid 
(13  Dec,  1808)  ;  Sir  John  Moore,  with  the  Enghsh  Army 
from  Portugal  advances  to  Salamanca  to  save  Andalusia  ;  re- 
treat of  Sir  John  Moore  to  Corunna  ;  battle  of  Corunna  (16 
Jan.,  1809). 

The  difficulties  of  Napoleon  in  the  Peninsula,  and  the 
promise  of  support  from  England  cause  the  Emperor  Francis 
to  believe  the  time  propitious  for  a  fresh  war  ;  unpopularity 
of  the  French  in  Germany  ;  Napoleon's  contempt  for  the 
popular  feeling  against  him  ;  Stadion,  who  had  become  State- 
ChancMlor  of  Austria  in  1806,  desired  to  make  Austria  the 
representative  of  this  German  national  feeling  ;  the  services 
of  Gentz  ;  re-organization  of  the  Austrian  army  by  the  Arch- 
duke Charles. 

Campaign  of  1809  ;  the  Archduke  Charles  invades  Bava- 
ria, and  the  Archduke  John,  Italy  ;  Napoleon  enters  Ger- 
many, defeats  the  Archduke  Charles  at  Abensberg  and  Eck- 
miihl  (20-22  Apr.)  and  occupies  Vienna  (12  May)  ;  the  bat- 
tle of  Aspern  or  Essling  (21-22  May)  ;  Napoleon  shut  up  in 
the  island  of  Lobau  ;  the  Tyrolese  rise  in  insurrection  under 
Hofer  ;  Napoleon,  joined  by  reinforcements,  defeats  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Wagram  (6  July). 

By  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  (14  Oct.,  1809)  Austria  ceded 
Trieste,  Carniola,  and  part  of  Croatia  to  Napoleon,  who  added 
these  districts  to  the  Illyrian  provinces;  Austria  also  ceded 


—  13  — 

Salzburg  to  Bavaria,  and  Western  Galicia  to  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Warsaw  ;  causes  of  the  failure  of  Austria  to  arouse 
German  national  feeling  ;  Stadion  succeeded  by  Metternich  ; 
Napoleon  marries  the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  Francis  (2  Apr.,  18 10). 

The  English  ministry  resolves  to  pursue  the  war  vigorous- 
ly on  land  against  Napoleon  ;  failure  of  the  expedition  to 
Walcheren  (Aug.,  1809)  ;  successes  in  the  war  in  the  Penin- 
sula ;  gallant  defence  of  Saragossa  by  the  Spaniards  ;  though 
the  Spanish  armies  were  defeated,  their  guerilla  warfare  re- 
duces the  power  of  the  French  ;  Arthur  Wellesley,  after- 
wards Eord  Wellington,  placed  in  command  of  the  English 
army  in  the  Peninsula ;  he  wins  the  battle  of  Talavera 
(28  July,  1809)  ;  Wellington  holds  the  Hnes  of  Torres 
Vedras  and  repulses  a  French  invasion  of  Portugal  under 
Massena  (1810-1811)  ;  Wellington  takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
and  Badajoz  and  defeats  Marmont  at  Salamanca  (22  July, 
1 8 1 2 )  ;  Joseph  Bonaparte  evacuates  Madrid  ;  the  English 
forced  to  retreat  from  Burgos,  and  Joseph  recovers  Madrid 
for  the  last  time. 

The  growth  of  the  national  spirit  in  Germany  ;  the 
Germans  look  to  Prussia  to  lead  them  ;  the  Tugenbund. 

The  re- organization  of  Prussia  ;  the  ministry  of  Stein  ; 
he  abolishes  serfdom  and  introduces  other  reforms  ;  the  war 
ministry  of  Scharnhorst  ;  he  passes  the  youth  of  Prussia 
through  the  army,  and  in  the  place  of  conscription  adopts 
universal  military  service  ;  Napoleon  demands  the  dismissal 
of  Stein  (1808)  and  of  Scharnhorst  (1810)  ;  the  ministry 
of  Hardenberg  ;  he  completes  the  work  of  Stein  by  making 
the  former  serfs  absolute  owners  of  their  holdings  ;  founda- 
tion of  the  University  of  Berlin  ;  assistance  rendered  by 
William  von  Humboldt ;  Frederick  William  III  forced  to 
sign  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Napoleon  (24 
Feb.,  1812). 

Growing  disagreement  between  Napoleon  and  the  Tsar 
Alexander  ;  its  causes  ;  Napoleon  resolves  to  invade  Russia  ; 
Castlereagh,  who  came  into  office  Jan.,    18 12,   offers  to  aid 


—  14  — 

Russia  ;  through  English  mediation  Russia  makes  peace 
with  the  Turks  at  Bucharest  (28  May,  18 12)  ;  Russia  signs 
the  Treaty  of  Abo  with  Sweden  (24,  Mch.  18 12)  by  which 
Bernadotte  promises  to  aid  Russia  against  Napoleon  and  to 
cede  Finland  in  exchange  for  Norway. 

Campaign  of  1812  ;  Napoleon  invades  Russia  (May)  ; 
retreat  of  the  Russians;  battle  of  Borodino  (7  Sept.); 
Napoleon  occupies  Moscow  (14  Sept.)  ;  the  retreat  from 
Moscow  ;  almost  complete  destruction  of  the  French  army. 

Campaign  of  1813  ;  during  the  retreat  from  Moscow  the 
Prussian  contingent  under  Yorck  abandons  the  French  army 
(30  Dec,  18 12)  ;  Prussia  declares  war  against  France  (16 
Mch.,  18 13)  ;  Napoleon  rallies  his  army  and  wins  the  battles 
"of  I^utzen  (2  May)  and  Bautzen  (20  May)  ;  Austria  signs 
the  Convention  of  Reichenbach  (17  June),  and  promises 
to  join  the  allies  if  Napoleon  refuses  the  terms  offered  to 
him  ;  Congress  of  Prague  ;  Austria  declares  war  against 
Napoleon  (12  Aug.)  ;  the  French  under  Oudinot  and 
Macdonald  defeated  by  Bernadotte  and  Bliicher  at  Gross- 
Beeren  and  the  Katzbach  (23-25  Aug.);  Napoleon  defeats 
the  Austrians  at  Dresden  (26-27  Aug.);  surrender  of 
Vandamme  to  the  Russians  at  Kulm  (30  Aug.);  the  Treaty 
of  Toplitz  (19  Sept.,  ;  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  desert 
Napoleon;  great  defeat  of  the  French  at  I^eipzig  (16-19 
Oct.)  ;  battle  of  Hanau  (30  Oct.)  ;  Napoleon  leaves 
Germany  ;  general  rising  of  the  Germans  against  the  French. 

Campaign  of  18 13  in  the  Peninsula  ;  Wellington  defeats 
the  French  at  Vittoria  (2 1  June)  and  invades  France. 

The  allied  armies  reach  the  Rhine  ;  negotiations  with  Napo- 
leon ;  position  taken  up  by  the  Tsar  Alexander,  Metternich  and 
Castlereagh. 

Campaign  of  18 14  in  France,  the  allies  invade  France  ; 
Napoleon's  victories  ;  the  Congress  of  Chatillon  (Feb- 
Mch. )  ;  Frederick  VI  of  Denmark  cedes  Norway  to  Sweden 
by  the  Treaty  of  Kiel  (14  Jan.)  ;  the  Dutch  rise  in  insur- 
rection ;  Carnot's  defence  of  Antwerp ;  the  position  in 
Italy  ;  Eugene  de  Beauharnais  remains  faithful,  but  Murat 


—■15  — 

negotiates  with  the  allies  ;  the  English  occupy  Genoa  ;  atti- 
tude of  France  towards  Napoleon  ;  the  country  refuses  to 
rise  to  support  him  ;  the  allies  sign  the  Treaty  of  Chaumont 
(i  Mch.)  ;  Napoleon's  last  battles  ;  the  allies  occupy  Paris 
(31  Mch.)  ;  abdication  of  Napoleon  at  Fontainebleau 
(6  Apr.) 

Causes  of  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 

Authorities:  On  Napoleon's  interference  in  Spain  and  Portugal 
and  on  the  history  of  the  Peninsular  War,  see  Dii  Casse,  Memoires  et 
Correspondance  du  Roi  Joseph,  Wellington,  Despatches,  Napier^ 
History  of  the  Peninsular  War,  and  Gomez y  Arteche,  Guerra  della 
Independencia  ;  for  the  campaign  of  Wagram,  see  Pelet,  Memoires 
sur  la  Guerre  de  1809;  for  the  reorganization  of  Prussia,  see  Seeley, 
Life  of  Stein,  Pertz,  Das  L<eben  des  Ministers  Freiherrn  vom  Stein, 
Ranke,  Denkwiirdigkeiten  des  Fiirsten  von  Hardenbreg,  Stern, 
Abhandlungen  und  Aktenstiicke  zur  Geschichte  der  Preussischen  Re- 
formzeit,  and  Lehmann,  Scharnhorst ;  for  Napoleon's  campaign  in 
Russia,  see  Skgur,  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  Grande  Armee  pen- 
dant I'Annee  1812;  for  the  campaign  in  Germany  of  1813,  and  the 
rising  of  Germany  against  Napoleon,  see  Droysen,  Das  Lebd^i  des 
Grafen  Yorck  von  Wartenburg,'^/<?r/5',  Das  Leben  des '^rafeii^NeiF"-'^^^*^'^*^ 
liardt  von  Gneisenau,'(9/?<:/t^w,  CEsterreich  und  Preussen  im  Befreiungs- 
kriege,  Droysen,  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Freiheitskriege  ;  for  the  de- 
fensive campaign  of  1814  in  France,  see  Houssaye,  1814,  and  for  the 
diplomatic  proceedings  of  the  period, ''w/wc«,  Lives  of  Lord  Castlereagh 
and  Sir  Charles  Stewart^the  ]Vfei2ioit»-««d  ^rrespondence  of  Castle- 
reagh, anaVitrolles,  Memoires, 


LECTURE    V 


The  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA. 

The  abdication  of  Napoleon  was  followed  by  the  pro- 
visional Treaty  of  Paris  (11  April)  assigning  to  him  the 
island  of  Elba  and  an  income,  and  to  the  Empress  Marie 
Eouise  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza. 

The  provisional  government  of  France  under  the  guidance 


—  i6  — 

of  Talleyrand  accepted  Louis  XVIII  as  king  ;  on  his  arrival 
he  issued  the  Declaration  of  Saint- Ouen  (2  May)  promising 
representative  government,  liberty  of  worship  and  of  the  press, 
responsibility  of  ministers,  guarantee  of  property  acquired 
during  the  Revolution,  etc.,  which  were  afterwards  embodied 
in  the  Charter  (4  June,  18 14). 

By  the  First  Treaty  of  Paris  (30  May,  18 14)  France  was 
reduced  to  the  limits  of  1792,  with  the  addition  of  Avignon, 
and  other  districts  within  these  limits,  and  of  part  of  Savoy  ; 
she  received  back  all  her  colonies  except  the  Mauritius, 
Saint  lyucia  and  Tobago,  which  were  ceded  to  England. 

It  was  agreed  that  a  congress  of  representatives  of  the 
states  of  Europe  should  be  held  at  Vienna  to  dispose  of  the 
territories  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  taken  from  France, 
and  in  general  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Europe. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  met  on  i  Nov.,  18 14  ;  it  was  at- 
tended by  most  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  those  who 
were^iot  present  sent  special  envoys. 

The  most  important  ambassadors  were  Metternich  for  Aus- 
tria, Hardenberg  for  Prussia,  Castlereagh  for  England,  and 
Razumovski  and  Nesselrode  for  Russia ;  these  representa- 
tives of  the  four  victorious  powers  arrogated  to  themselves 
the  right  to  arrange  the  decisions  of  the  Congress. 

Arrival  of  Talleyrand  as  the  representative  of  France  ;  his 
great  diplomatic  campaign  ;  he  stands  forth  as  the  advocate 
of  legitimacy,  and  as  the  defender  of  the  smaller  powers  ;  he 
adroitly  makes  use  of  the  dissensions  between  the  four  great 
powers. 

The  chief  political  questions  at  issue  ;  ( i )  the  Tsar  Alex- 
ander desired  the  whole  of  Poland  and  Frederick  William  III 
of  Prussia  the  whole  of  Saxony,  whose  king  had  remained 
faithful  to  Napoleon;  (2)  the  disposition  of  the  territories 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  (3)  the  treatment  of  Italy, 
especiall}^  of  Murat,  who  had  abandoned  Napoleon  ;  Talley- 
rand's attitude  upon  these  questions. 

In  order  to  oppose  the  claims  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  Aus- 
tria, England  and  France  sign  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance 
(3  Jan.,  1815).    . 


—  17  — 

Eventually  it  is  settled  that  Prussia  shall  receive  Lusatia, 
being  about  two-fifth  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxon 5',  and  Russia 
the  greater  part  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  including 
the  city  of  Warsaw  ;  Prussia  retained  her  gains  in  the  first 
and  second  partitions  of  Poland,  with  the  additions  of  Posen, 
Thorn  and  Dantzig,  while  ^Austria  retained  Eastern  Galicia, 
and  Cracow  was  made  a  free  state. 

In  order  to  establish  strong  powers  upon  the  Rhine  to 
curb  France,  Holland  and  Belgium  are  united  as  the  King- 
dom of  the  Netherlands  and  granted  to  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
who  is  also  made  Grand  Duke  of  lyUxemburg  ;  the  districts 
comprising  the  former  electorates  of  Treves  and  Cologne, 
etc. ,  w^ere  granted  to  Prussia  ;  the  districts  further  south  to 
Bavaria,  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Salzburg  and  the 
Tyrol,  and  the  fortress  of  Mayence  to  Hesse- Darmstadt,  to  be 
garrisoned  by  the  Germanic  Confederation. 

The  re-arrangement  of  Italy  ;  lyombardy  and  Venetia 
were  given  to  Austria,  Genoa  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia  in  which  the  succession  was  fixed  in  the  Carignan 
line,  Tuscany  and  Modena  were  restored  to  their  former 
rulers,  both  Austrian  princes,  Parma,  Piacenza  and  Guastalla 
were  given  to  the  Empress  Marie  lyouise  for  her  life,  with 
succession  to  the  rightful  heir  who  was  for  the  time  made 
Grand  Duke  of  I^ucca,  the  States  of  the  Church  restored  to 
the  Pope  and  the  question  of  retaining  Murat  on  the  throne 
of  Naples  remained  unsettled  until  he  defied  Austria  and  en- 
deavored to  summon  Italy  to  arms  ;  after  the  defeat  of 
Murat  at  Tolentino  (3  May,  18 15)  Naples  was  restored  to 
Ferdinand  IV,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

In  the  North,  Sweden  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of 
Norway,  ceded  to  her  by  Denmark  by  the  Treaty  of  Kiel, 
but  Denmark  lost  Swedish  Pomerania  and  received  instead 
the  Duchy  of  I^auenburg. 

In  Germany,  Prussia  regained  her  acquisitions  of  1803 
with  Swedish  Pomerania,  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia,  and  Rhenish  Prussia  ;  Hanover  received  East 
Friesland  and  other  districts,  and  the  mediatization  of  the 
petty  states  of  Germany  was  maintained. 


—  i8  — 

England,  in  addition  to  the  colonial  gains  made  by  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens,  retained  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
Mauritius,  Malta,  Heligoland,  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  but 
restored  Martinique  to  the  French  and  Java  to  the  Dutch  ; 
Castlereagh's  chief  preoccupation  at  Vienna  was,  however,  to 
secure  the  abolition  of  the  negro  slave  trade. 

Before  these  arrangements  were  finally  completed,  the 
congress  was  startled  by  the  news  that  Napoleon  had  left 
Elba  and  was  again  master  of  France  ;  it  therefore  hurried 
through  the  rest  of  its  work  by  reorganizing  Germany  and 
Switzerland. 

The  Germanic  Confederation  took  the  place  of  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  ;  it  consisted  of  thirty-eight  states, 
in  addition  to  Austria  and  Prussia,  namely  ;  the  four 
kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Hanover,  Saxony  and  Wurtemberg, 
the  eight  grand  duchies  of  Baden,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Luxemburg,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  Oldenburg,  and  Saxe- Weimar,  eleven  duchies, 
eleven  principalities,  and  the  four  free  cities  of  Bremen, 
Frankfort,  Hamburg  and  lyiibeck  ;  the  affairs  of  the  Con- 
federation were  entrusted  to  a  Diet  presided  over  by  Austria 
and  consisting  of  an  Ordinary  Assembly  of  seventeen  and  a 
General  Assembly  of  sixty-nine  members. 

The  Swiss  Confederation  was  guaranteed  neutrality  by 
the  powers  of  Europe  ;  three  new  cantons,  Geneva, 
Neufchatel  and  the  Valais  were  added  ;  entire  independence 
was  given  to  the  individual  cantons  and  the  presidency  of 
the  federal  diet  was  reserved  to  Zurich,  Berne  and  Lucerne 
in  turn. 

Importance  of  the  work  of  the  •  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  it 
shows  a  reaction  to  i8th  century  ideas  in  trampling  on  the 
ideas  of  nationality  and  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people. 

The  story  of  .  the  Hundred  Days ;  unpopularity  and 
unwise  conduct  of  Louis  XVIII  ;  Napoleon  escapes  from 
Elba  and  lands  in  France  (i  Mch.,  1815)  ;  he  reaches  Paris 
(20  Mch.);  flight  of  Louis  XVIII;  Napoleon  promises 
to  establish  representative  institutions  ;   the  Additional  Act 


iU^c^^^  hU^.^iUi  f:^  ^^<^ 


—  19  — 

(23  Apr.)  ;  he  endeavors  to  raise  France  against  the  allies  ; 
he  is  defeated  by  the  English  and  Prussians  at  Waterloo 
(i8  June)  ;  surrender  of  Napoleon  to  Captain  Maitland 
(15  July)  ;  he  is  sent  to  St.  Helena;  the  allied  armies  occupy 
Paris  ;  restoration  of  lyouis  XVIII. 

By  the  Second  Treaty  of  Paris  (20  Nov.,  1815)  France 
loses  the  part  of  Savoy  granted  her  in  18 14  and  other  ratifi- 
cations of  her  frontier  ;  she  has  to  restore  the  works  of  art 
accumulated  in  Paris  to  their  former  owners  ;  she  is  forced 
to  pay  a  war  contribution  of  700,000,000  francs  and  to 
maintain  an  army  of  150,000  troops  of  the  allies  in  possession 
of  her  eastern  fortresses  for  five  years. 

Authorities :  For  the  history  and  acts  of  the  Congresg."f  Vienna. 
see^Flassan,  Histoire  du  Congr^s  de  ViennefT^luder,  Akten  der  Wie- 
ner Congresses,  Angeberg,  Le  Congres  de  Vienne  et  les  Traites  de  1815, 
^ De  Pradt,  JtLCongres  de  Vienne,  Schoell,  Recueil  de  Pieces  Officielles 
relatives  au  Congres  de  Vienne,  Talleyrand,  M^nioires,  Pallain,  Cor- 
respondance  in^dite  du  Prince  de  Talleyrand  et  du  Roi  Louis  XVIII 
pendant  le  Congres  de  Vienne,  Metternich,  Memoirs,  Alison,  Lives  of 
Lord  Casllereagh  and  Sir  Charles  Stewart,  Casllereagh,  Correspond- 
ence, Wellington,  Supplementary  Despatches,  Ranke,  Hardenberg. 
For  the  Hundred  Days,  see  the  books  on  Napoleon  already  cited, 
Hoiissaye,  18 15,  Constant,  Memoires  sur  les  Cent  Jours,  Vitrolles,  M^- 
moires,  and  Rochechouart,  Souvenirs  ;  and  for  the  campaign  of  Water- 
loo, Siborne,  History  of  the  War  in  France  and  Belgium  in  1815,  Ropes, 
History  of  the  Waterloo  Campaign,  Gardner,  Waterloo,  Chesney,  Wa- 
terloo Lectures,  and  Charras,  Histoire  de  la  campagne  de  18 15. 


JutU 


^ 


IvECTURB  VI. 


THE  HOLY  ALLIANCE. 

After  the  signature  of  the  Second  Treaty  of  Paris,  the 
Tsar  Alexander  of  Russia,  influenced  by  Madame  de  Krii- 
dener,  proposes  the  formation  of  a  Holy  Alliance  declaring 
the  obligations  of  monarchs  to  the  Christian  religion  ;  it  is 


'---  20  — 

Signed  by  the  E^niperor  Francis  of  Austria  and  King  Fred- 
erick William  III  of  Prussia,  (26  Sept.,  1815),  but  not  by 
England  ;  the  objects  and  aims,  secret  and  avowed,  of  the 
Holy  Alliance. 

Metternich  recognized  as  the  leading  statesman  of  the 
Holy  Alliance  ;  his  fear  of  democratic  principles  greater 
than  his  attachment  to  religion  ;  his  intimacy  with  Castle- 
reagh  ;  he  proposes  to  preserve  the  peace  of  Europe  and  the 
force  of  government  by  frequent  congresses  of  representa- 
tives of  the  great  powers,  which  should  consult  and  act  to- 
gether. 

Metternich' s  Austrian  policy  the  reverse  of  that  of  Joseph 
II  ;  he  believes  in  maintaining  authority  by  preserving  the 
diversity  of  language  and  law  in  the  different  provinces  of 
the  Austrian  empire. 

The  internal  policy  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  I  ;  his  attempt 
to  establish  constitutional  government  in  Poland  ;  his  friend- 
ship with  Adam  Czartoryski  and  other  Polish  patriots  ;  his 
interest  in  the  Eastern  Question,  and  dcvsire  to  overthrow  the 
power  of  the  Turks  ;  he  encourages  the  Greeks,  especially 
through  Capo  d'Istria,  in  their  desire  for  independence. 

The  government  of  Eouis  XVIII  in  France  ;  the  system 
of  the  Charter  ;  representative  government  in  two  chambers  ; 
the  two  parties,  Royalists  and  Constitutionalists  ;  suppression 
of  the  liberty  of  the  press  ;  repression  of  the  partisans  of 
the  Revolution  ;  the  White  Terror  ;  the  administration  of 
the  Due  de  Richelieu,  (1815-1818). 

The  Congress  of  Aix  la  Chapelle  ;  the  allies  agree  to  evac- 
uate France  (9  Oct.,  18 18). 

The  spread  of  constitutional  principles  in  Germany  ;  in- 
dignation of  the  young  German  party  at  the  refusal  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  to  recognize  the  principle  of  nationality 
or  the  establishment  of  representative  government  ;  the 
spirit  of  the  universities  ;  the  Burschenschaft. 

Certain  German  rulers,  notably  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wurtemberg  and  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Baden  and  Saxe- Wei- 
mar, grant  representative  constitutions  to  their  states  ;  Fred- 


21 

erick  William  III  of  Prussia  had  promised  a  constitution  in 
1815  and  took  steps  in  that  direction  in  1818  ;  the  work  of 
William  von  Humboldt ;  Metternich's  opposition  to  the  lib- 
eral movement  in  Germany. 

The  murder  of  Kotzebue  (23  Mch.,  1819)  ;  its  effect  on 
Germany  ;  Frederick  William  III  dismisses  Humboldt  and 
delays  his  promised  constitution  ;  riots  in  Germany  ;  Metter- 
nich  takes  advantage  of  these  risings  to  oppose  liberal  ideas  ;, 
the  Congress  of  Carlsbad  (Aug.  1819)  ;  the  Final  Act  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  (15  May,  1820),  strengthening  the  power 
of  the  Diet  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  against  the 
different  states  ;  measures  taken  against  German  liberalism. 

The  demand  for  representative  government  and  for  the 
establishment  in  different  degrees  of  liberal  principles 
stigmatized  by  Metternich  as  Jacobinism  ;  he  induces  the 
Holy  Alliance,  including  the  Tsar  Alexander,  to  declare 
against  liberalism. 

The  supporters  of  liberal  principles  form  secret  societies 
all  over  Europe  in  relation  with  each  other  ;  in  Germany 
and  in  Italy  their  cause  is  associated  with  the  spirit  of 
nationality. 

General  revolution  in  Spain  (1820)  caus:^d  by  the 
reactionary  government  of  Ferdinand  VII  ;  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  Central  and  South  America  fight  for  their  inde- 
pendence ;  San  Martin,  Francia,  Bolivar  and  Iturbide  ;  the 
Spaniards  demand  the  Constitution  of  1812  ;  Ferdinand  VII 
appears  to  yield,  but  appeals  for  help  against  his  people  to 
the  Holy  Alliance  ;  Catalonia  and  Navarre  oppose  the  re- 
forms of  the  Cortes. 

The  Carbonari  in  Italy ;  the  movement  for  reform,  both 
democratic  and  national  ;  Pepe  seize  Naples  (1820)  and 
forces  Ferdinand  IV  to  adopt  a  liberal  constitution  ;  demo- 
cratic rising  in  Turin. 

Metternich  lays  the  question  of  the  liberal  movement  in 
Italy  before  a  congress  of  the  powers  at  Troppau  (Oct., 
Dec,  1820)  and  at  Lay  bach  (Jan. -Mch.,  182 1)  ;  Austria 
authorized  to  interfere  ;  Austrian  troops  suppress  the  liberal 
movements  in  Naples  and  Piedmont. 


22  — 

Suicide  of  Castlereagh  (12  Aug.,  1822)  ;  Canning 
becomes  English  foreign  minister  ;  his  liberal  ideas  and  dis- 
like of  Metternich  ;  Castlereagh 's  death  the  first  blow  at  the 
solidarity  of  the  great  powers  in  the  system  of  governing 
Europe  by  Congress. 

Attitude  of  France  towards  the  other  powers  ;  policy  of 
Louis  XVIII ;  administration  of  Decazas  (1818-20)  and  of 
Richelieu  (1820-21)  ;  formation  of  an  ultra- Royalist 
ministry  under  Villele  (1821). 

Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  Verona  (Oct.,  1822),  sum- 
moned to  deal  with  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Spain  ; 
attitude  taken  by  Canning,  who  declares  the  intention  of 
England  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can republics  and  warns  the  allies  not  to  interfere  in 
Portugal  ;  the  Congress  requests  France  to  re-establish  the 
authority  of  Ferdinand  VII. 

A  French  army  invades  Spain,  occupies  Madrid,  and 
suppresses  the  Constitutional  party  in  Spain  ;  unpopularity 
of  this  action  among  French  liberals  ;  plots  formed  against 
the  Bourbons. 

Death  of  Louis  XVIII  (16  Sept.,  1824)  ;  accession  of  the 
Comte  d'Artois  as  Charles  X  ;  his  ultra- Royalist  ideas  ;  he 
retains  Villele  in  power. 

Death  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  I  (i  Dec,  1825)  :  the 
character  of  his  influence  on  European  politics  since  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  ;  his  death  breaks  up  the  Holy  Alliance  ; 
his  successor,  Nicholas  I,  resolves  to  carry  out  his  own  policy 
without  consulting  the  other  powers  ;  Metternich  remains 
the  director  of  the  policy  of  Austria  and  Russia,  but 
England,  owing  to  the  death  of  Castlereagh,  and  Russia, 
owing  to  the  death  of  Alexander,  no  longer  submit  to  his 
leadership. 

Authorities:  For  the  diDlotnatic  history  of  this  period,  see  Debi- 
dour,  Histoire  Diplomatique  de  L,' Europe,  Metternich,  Memoirs,  Cas- 
tlereagh, Correspondence,  Pozzo  dl  Borgo,  Correspondance  diploma- 
tique, and  Ranke,  Hardenberg  ;  for  special  Congresses,  see'w^  Pradt, 
^'Europe  apres  le  Congres  d'Aix-£a -Chapelle,  and  Le  Congres  de 
Carlsbad,  Bignon,  I^e  Congres  de  Troppau,  and  Chateaubriand,  Le 


«yc.  '^lU^t    "fhlyu-^T^c  h^\c^  e^-  c^xtfjtr^^n^ct.  eiili^cvh^i 


—  23  — 

Congres  de  Verone  ;  for  the  history  of  the  Restoration  in  France,  see 
Viel-Castel,  Histoire  de  la  Restau ration,  Rochechouart,  Souvenirs, 
Hyde  de  Neuville,  Memoires,  Marcellus^  Souvenirs  diplomatiques, 
and  Villele,  Metnoires ;  for  Germany,  see  Gervinus,  Geschichte  des 
Neunzehuten  Jahrhunderts,  Treitschke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im 
Neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  owSPfister,  Konig  Friedrich  von  Wiirttem- 
berg  und  seine  Zeit ;  on  Italy,  see  Colletta,  Istoria  di  Reame  di  Napoli, 
^Pepe,  Memoirs,  and^t?^/«  de  Beauregard^  La  Jeunesse  du  Roi  Charles 
Albert ;  for  Spain,  Hubbard,  Histoire  Contemporaine  de  I'Espagne, 
and  Martignac,  Essai  historique  sur  la  Revolution  4!^^^SH^J_A-4J^ 
the  Tsar  Alexander^'/^<?r</,<^Ma^3anre  cIe~TCfudener,  La  Correspondance 
enlre  le  Tsar  Alexandre  et  le  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski,  and  Schnitzler, 
Histoire  intime  de  la  Russie  sous  les  Empereurs  Alexandre  et  Nicolas. 


LECTURE  VII. 


THE  EASTERN  QUESTION    AND    THE   INDEPENDENCE   OF 

GREECE. 

The  importance  of  the  Eastern  question  in  the  history  of 
Europe  during  the  19th  century  ;  owing  to  the  extinction  of 
Poland,  it  becomes  practically  a  Turkish  question  ;  England 
and  Austria  devote  themselves  to  checking  the  disruption  of 
the  Turkish  Empire  which  it  was  the  traditional  policy  of 
Russia  to  promote. 

The  position  of  the  Turks  at  the  time  of  the  Congress  of 
Vienna ;  loss  of  the  old  Muhammadan  fanaticism  and 
energy ;  the  government  of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  II  ; 
quasi-independence  of  Egypt  attained  by  Mehemet  Ali  by  his 
destruction  of  the  Mamelukes  (1811)  ;  discontented  and  in- 
dependent spirit  of  the  Christian  populations  under  Turkish 
rule,  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Danubian  provinces  of  Wal- 
lachia  and  Moldavia,  of  the  Slavs  of  Servia,  and  of  the 
Greeks. 

The  insurrection  of  the  Servians  under  Kara  George 
(1804)  ;  recognition  of  Servian  independence  by  the  Treaty 


—  24  — 

of  Bucharest  (1812)  ;  the  Turks  nevertheless  reconquer 
Servia  and  expel  Kara  George  ;  second  Servian  insurrection 
under  Milosch  Obrenovitch  (1815)  ;  he  is  for  a  time  rec- 
ognized as  quasi-independent  ( 1 8 1 7  ) . 

Position  of  the  Danubian  provinces  under  the  Treaty  of 
Bucharest ;  Russia  reaches  the  Danube. 

The  Greeks  rise  in  insurrection  (1821)  ;  they  are  encour- 
aged, but  not  openly,  by  the  Tsar  Alexander  I ;  his  friend- 
ship for  Capo  d'Istria ;  failure  of  the  first  rising  under 
Ypsilanti  ;  gallantry  of  the  Greek  insurgents  ;  Metternich 
declares  against  assisting  them  ;  Alexander  therefore,  dis- 
misses Capo  d'Istria  from  oihce  ;  strong  feeling  among  the 
educated  classes  in  England  and  France  in  favor  of  the 
Greeks  ;  many  volunteers,  including  Byron,  go  to  their  as- 
sistance ;  large  loans  raised  for  them  in  England. 

Change  caused  in  the  attitude  of  Russia  to  the  Eastern 
Question  by  the  accession  of  Nicholas  ;  he  resolves  to  pro- 
mote RuSvSian  interests  in  Turkey  without  consulting  other 
powers  ;  Nicholas  agrees  with  Canning  that  the  Turks  shall 
be  forced  to  recognize  the  independence  of  Greece   (4  Apr. , 

1826)  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Ackerman  (7  Oct.,  1826)  the  Turks 
make  concessions  to  Russia,  and  the  Sultan  promises  to  ap- 
point local  boyars  or  nobles  elected  by  the  local  divans  for 
seven  years  as  Hospodars  or  princes  of  the  two  Danubian 
provinces  and  to  establish  quasi-independence  in  Servia. 

Canning  becomes  prime  minister  of  England  (10  April, 

1827)  ;  Russia,  England  and  France  come  to  an  agreement 
for  securing  absolute  independence  for  Greece  (6  July, 
1827)  ;  the  Turks  encouraged  by  Metternich,  refused  to 
yield;  death  of  Canning  (8  Aug.,);  destruction  of  the 
Turkish  fleet  by  the  allies  at  Navarino  (20  Oct.,  1827)  ; 
Capo  d'Istria  elected  President  of  the  Greek  state. 

Position  of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  II ;  by  the  massacre  of 

the  Janissaries  (15  June,  1826)  he  had  destroyed  his  army  ; 

the  battle  of  Navarino  had  destroyed  his  fleet ;  nevertheless, 

he  refused  to  consent  to  the  independence  of  Greece. 

.  The  Tsar  Nicholas,  in  the  name  of  the  Triple  Alliance, 


—  25  — 

attacked  the  Turks  and  a  Russian  army  crossed  the  Pruth 
(7  May,  1828)  ;  changes  of  ministry  in  England  and  France 
caused  England  under  Wellington  to  be  less  eager,  and 
France  under  Martignac  to  be  more  eager  to  support  the 
cause  of  the  Greeks  ;  a  French  force  under  Maison  occupies 
the  Morea,  which  is  evacuated  by  the  Egyptian  troops  of 
Mehemet  Ali  ;  the  Russians  repulsed  from  Shumla  and  Silis- 
tria  ;  successful  campaign  of  Paskievitch  in  Armenia. 

By  an  agreement  between  England,  France  and  Russia, 
the  limits  of  Greece  are  fixed,  and  it  is  resolved  that  some 
prince  not  belonging  to  the  Royal  Houses  of  these  countries 
shall  be  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Greece  (22  Mch.,  1829)  ; 
candidature  of  lycopold  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

Campaign  of  1829  ;  Diebitch  reaches  Adrianople  ;  terror 
of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  (14 
Sept.,  1829)  the  Treaty  of  Ackerman  is  renewed  with  the 
exception  that  the  Hospodars  of  the  Danubian  provinces  are 
to  be  appointed  for  life,  the  independence  of  Greece  is 
recognized  and  the  Russians  are  permitted  to  occupy  the 
fortresses  upon  the  Danube  as  a  guarantee  of  the  payment 
of  a  large  indemnity  by  the  Turks. 

Conclusion  of  the  Greek  question  ;  Leopold  refuses  the 
throne;  murder  of  Capo  d'Istria  (9  Oct.,  1831)  ;  Otho  of 
Bavaria  made  King  of  the  Hellenes  (7  May,  1832)  ;  the 
French  evacuate  the  Morea. 

The  Tsar  Nicholas  I  and  Poland  ;  the  government  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Constantine  ;  indignation  of  the  Poles  at  the  re- 
fusal of  self-government ;  the  feeling  of  nationality  main- 
tained by  secret  societies  ;  the  Poles,  who  served  under  Na- 
poleon, look  for  help  to  France  in  regaining  their  independ- 
ence. 

Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  Feb.,  1830,  in  France  upon 
Poland;  an  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Warsaw  (29  Nov., 
1830)  ;  the  Russians  are  driven  from  Poland  ;  Chlopicki  dic- 
tator of  Poland  (5  Dec,  1830 — 15  Jan.,  1831)  ;  the  Poles  de- 
feat the  Russians  at  Waver  (20  Feb.,  1831),  and  elsewhere  ; 
Europe  refuses  to  help  the  Poles  ;    the  Austrians  and  Prus- 


—  26  — 

sians  mass  troops  upon  their  frontiers,  fearing  that  the  insur- 
rection will  reach  Austrian  and  Prussian  Poland ;  Louis 
Philippe  of  France  is  not  firm  enough  on  his  throne  to  inter- 
fere ;  the  Poles  defeated  at  Ostrolenka  (26  May,  1831)  ; 
Warsaw  besieged  and  taken  by  Paskievitch  (7  Sept.,  183 1)  ; 
cruel  punishment  of  the  Polish  insurgents  ;  rigorous  govern- 
ment of  the  Tsar  Nicholas. 

Policy  of  Nicholas  towards  the  Turks  ;  by  his  occupation 
of  the  Danubian  fortresses  he  keeps  them  at  his  mercy  ;  the 
character  and  career  of  Mehemet  Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt ;  he  in- 
vades Syria,  with  the  intention  of  marching  on  Constanti- 
nople ;  England  and  France  intervene  to  stop  Mehemet  Ali  ; 
the  Sultan  Mahmud  calls  in  the  help  of  Russia  and  signs  an 
offensive  and  defensive  treaty  wth  Nicholas  at  Unkiar 
Skelessi  (12  July,  1833)  ;  the  Russians  evacuate  the  Danu- 
bian fortresses  and  provinses  (1834). 

Russia's  advance  into  Central  Asia  ;  conquest  of  the  Cen- 
tral Asian  tribes  one  of  the  national  aims  of  the  Russian  peo- 
ple ;  importance  and  value  of  the  work  to  Europe  ;  the  cam- 
paign of  the  Russians  for  the  possession  of  the  Caucasus 
and  the  conquest  of  Circassia  and  Georgia  ;  Russian  wars 
with  Persia;  by  the  Treaty  of  Gulistan  (18 13)  Fateh  Ali 
Shah  cedes  Daghestan  to  Russia,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Turk- 
omanchai  (1828)  Russian  influence  becomes  predominant  in 
Persia. 

The  settlement  of  the  Eastern  question  presents  difficult 
problems  to  England,  France  and  Austria,  which  all  have  an 
interest  in  restraining  Russia. 

Authorities:  For  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Question,  reference 
may  be  male  to  the  sketch  contained  in  Debidour,  Histoire  Diplo- 
matique de  I'Burope,  to  several  of  the  other  works  cited  under  Lect- 
ure VI,  to  Balleydier,  Histoire  de  PEmpereur  Nicolas,  to  Gentz,  De- 
peches  inedits  aux  Hospodars  de  Valachie,  and  to  Ranke,  History  of 
Servia ;  for  the  War  of  Greek  Independence,  the  best  authorities  are 
Finlay,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,  Gordoji,  History  of  the 
Greek  Revolution,  Soutzo,  Histoire  de  la' Revolution  Grecque,  and 
Tricoupis'  history  written  in  modern  Greek  ;  for  the  policy  of  Can- 
ning, see  his  political  life  by  Stapleton,  and  his  official  correspondence 


—  27  — 

edited  by  Stapleton  ;   for  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  see 
-^Chesney,  The  Russo-Turkish  Campaigns  of  1828-29,  and  iJ/(9//'>^<?,  Jour- 
nal of  the  War  between  Russia  and  Turkey  ;  and,  for  the  advance  of 
Russia  into  Central  Asia,  Hellwald,  The  Russians  in  Central  Asia. 


LECTURE  VIII 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1830  IN  FRANCE. 

The  position  of  parties  under  the  Restoration ;  in  the 
Chambers  appeared  only  ultra- Royalists,  and  Constitution- 
alists, who  desire  to  interpret  the  charter  of  18 14  according 
to  the  principles  of  1789  ;  in  the  army  and  in  military  circles 
were  many  Bonapartists  ;  and  in  the  cities  the  Democratic 
and  Republican  party  was  very  strong. 

Character  of  the  ultra- Royalist  administration  of  Villele 
(1821-28)  during  the  latter  years  of  Louis  XVIII  and  the 
first  years  of  Charles  X  ;  severe  repression  of  Bonapartist 
plots  and  city  riots  ;  the  Royalists  endeavor  to  make  the  Con- 
stitutional party  responsible  for  Bonapartist  and  Democratic 
excesses  ;  the  bourgeois,  and  educated  classes  of  France, 
support  the  Constitutionalists ;  Royalism  is  confined  to  a 
small  party  of  the  nobility  ;  growing  importance  of  jour- 
nalism ;  the  work  of  Armand  Carrel,  Courier,  Thiers,  and 
Guizot. 

The  character  and  policy  of  Charles  X  ;  he  hopes  by  a 
vigorous  foreign  policy,  as  shown  in  the  expedition  to  the 
Morea  in  1828  and  in  the  expedition  to  Algiers  in  1830,  to 
turn  the  minds  of  the  people  from  internal  politics,  and  by  a 
closa  alliance  with  the  absolutist  powers,  especially  Russia, 
to  get  assistance  from  abroad  in  case  of  insurrection  at  home. 

The  elections  of  1827  give  a  large  majority  in  the  Cham- 
bers to  the  Constitutionalists  ;  Villele  succeeded  in  office  by 
Martignac  (4  Jan.  1828)  ;   the  new  ministry  satisfies  neither 


—  28  — 

the  King  nor  the  Chambers,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  ultra- 
Ro3^aHst  ministry  of  Polignac  (8  Aug.,  1829)  ;  the  king  and 
ministry  being  unable  to  get  a  majority  for  their  measures 
resolve  to  alter  the  Charter  in  favor  of  increasing  the  royal 
power. 

Proclamation  of  the  Ordinances  submitting  the  press  to 
severe  censure  and  modifying  the  electoral  laws  (25  July, 
1830). 

The  insurrection  of  July  1830  in  Paris;  the  erection  of 
barricades  and  commencement  of  street  fighting  (27,  28 
July)  ;  the  failure  of  the  troops  to  suppress  the  insurrection; 
Charles  X,  when  too  late,  withdraws  the  Ordinances  (29  July) ; 
he  resolves  to  leave  France  with  his  family  (31  July)  ;  he  ap- 
points the  Duke  of  Orleans  Lieutenant-General  of  the  king- 
dom, (i  Aug.)  and  abdicates  (2  Aug.);  he  reaches  England 
(17  Aug.) 

Surprise  of  the  Constitutionalists  at  their  sudden  and  com- 
plete victory  ;  the  part  played  by  Lafayette  ;  ihe  Constitu- 
tionalists resolve  that  although  the  victory  had  been  won  by 
the  democrats  of  Paris  it  shall  result  in  the  formation  of  a 
Constitutional  monarchy  ;  the  Chambers  revise  the  Charter 
from  the  liberal  point  of  view,  and  (7  Aug.)  elect  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  as  King  of  the  French  under  the  title  of  Louis 
Philippe. 

Character,  career  and  disposition  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  diffi- 
culties of  his  position  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  ; 
he  represented  the  ideas  and  wishes  of  the  bourgeois  and  not 
of  the  whole  people  of  France,  which  weakened  him  at  home, 
while  abroad,  he  is  regarded  as  the  creation  of  a  new  French 
Revolution  not  less  dangerous  to  the  monarchical  system  of 
Europe  than  the  first  French  Revolution. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  importance  of  the 
services  rendered  at  this  time  by  Talleyrand,  who  goes  as 
ambassador  to  London  ;  the  Monarchy  of  July  recognized  by 
Wellington,  as  prime  minister  of  England,  and  cordially  sup- 
ported by  the  Reform  Ministry  of  Lord  Grey,  which  suc- 
ceeded to  power  in  Nov.  1830  ;    the  recognition  of  England 


'AmX 


^^^^    Ls  cU'v^^  c^uhlt^  cU  U^f^t^ 


—  29  — 

was  followed  by  that  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  Mettertiich  and 
Frederick  William  III  bsing  afraid  to  attack  France  by 
themselves  ;  the  Tsar  Nicholas  was  too  much  occupied  with 
putting-  down  ths  Polish  insurrection  to  interfere  in  France, 
and  did  not  desire  to  do  so  after  lyouis  Philippe  refused  to  as- 
sist the  Poles. 

The  insurrections  in  Belgium  and  elsewhere  which  followed 
the  Revolution  in  France  made  the  position  of  the  king  very 
difficult  because  France  was  held  responsible  for  the  other 
risings  ;  skill  shown  by  lyOuis  Philippe  and  Talleyrand. 

Internal  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  doubtfulness  of  his 
title  as  a  legitimate  or  a  revolutionary  monarch  ;  he  re-estab- 
lishes the  tricolor  flag  ;  I^afayette  appointed  Commandant 
General  of  the  National  Guards  of  France  ;  the  first  minis- 
try of  lyOUis  Philippe  containing  members  of  both  the  Con- 
stitutional and  advanced  lyiberal  parties  ;  Laffitte,  the  leader 
of  the  advanced  party,  made  chief  minister  (2  Nov.,  1830)  ; 
changes  made  in  the  Constitution. 

The  ministry  of  Casimir  Perier  (1831-32);  his  strong 
government  at  home  and  his  strong  foreign  policy  ;  abolition 
of  the  hereditary  peerage  and  appointment  of  an  upper- 
chamber  of  life  peers. 

Significance  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  in  France;  the 
bourgeois  at  last  have  an  opportunity  ol  putting  into  effect 
the  principles  of  1789;  results  of  their  experiment. 

Authorities  :  The  Revolution  of  183  >  in  France  is  treated  at  length 
in  the  first  chapters  of  the  following  general  histories  of  the  reign  of 
lyOuis  Philippe  :  Thu  re  an- Dang  in,  Histoire  de  laMoiiarchie  de  Juillet. 
Louis  Blanc,  Histoire  de  dix  Ans,  Capefigue,  L'Europedepuis  I'avene- 
ment  du  Roi  lyOuis  Philippe,  D' Haussonvilley  Histoire  deja^politi^e 
exterieure  du  Gouvernement  Franjais  [\%io-^^^'^\<?rTiiilebra7id,  Ge- 
schichte  Frankreichs;  of  special  value  are  Talleyrand,  Menioires,  vols, 
iv  and  v,  containing  his  correspondence  with  Louis  Philippe  from  1830 
to  1834,  and  refei-ence  may  be  made  to  Guizot,  Memoires  pour  servir 
a  I'histoire  de  mon  temps,  Lafayette,  Memoires,  Salva?idy,  Seize  Mois, 
Laffitte,  Memoires,  and  the  Due  de  Broglie,  Souvenirs. 


IsA^, 


—  30  — 
LECTURE   IX. 


THE  BELGIAN   INSURRECTION. 

The  mistake  made  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  uniting 
the  Protestant  and  CathoHc  Netherlands  under  one  monarch; 
the  hereditary  antagonism  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians  ; 
in  1815  Belgium  had  been  for  more  than  twenty  years  under 
French  government  and  resented  the  government  of  the 
Dutch. 

The  government  of  William  I,  King  of  the  Netherlands  ; 
he  declares  Dutch  the  official  language  of  the  country  and 
favors  his  Dutch  over  his  Belgian  subjects. 

The  Belgians,  excited  by  the  news  of  the  Revolution  of 
July,  1830,  in  Paris,  and  hoping  for  help  from  the  new  gov- 
ernment of  France,  break  into  insurrection  (25  Aug.,  1830); 
a  Dutch  attack  on  Brussels  is  repulsed  (30  Aug.),  a  pro- 
visional government  formed,  and  a  national  assembly  sum- 
moned. 

The  National  Assembly  of  Belgium  meets  (10  Nov.), 
solemnly  proclaims  the  independence  of  Belgium  (18  Nov.), 
and  that  Belgium  should  be  like  France  a  constitutional 
monarchy  and  not  a  republic. 

William  I  appeals  to  the  great  powers  for  assistance,  on 
the  ground  that  the  independence  of  Belgium  was  contrary 
to  the  decisions  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  but  the  Tsar 
Nicholas  was  engaged  in  Poland,  Metternich's  attention  was 
fixed  on  Italy,  England,  under  the  Reform  Ministry  of  Eord 
Grey,  was  inclined  to  S3anpathize  with  the  Belgian  insurgents 
and  only  Prussia  was  prepared  to  assist  him. 

The  difficult  position  of  lyouis  Philippe  ;  as  the  king  made 
by  the  Revolution  of  1830  in  Paris,  he  is  looked  on  as  re- 
sponsible for  the  Belgian  Revolution  by  Europe  and  appealed 
to  for  help  by  the  Belgians  ;  England  was  the  only  great 
"power  which  cared  much  about  Belgium,  and  it  thought 
more  of  keeping  Belgium  separate  from  France  than  subject 
to  Holland;  Talleyrand,  as  French  ambassador  in  London, 


agreed  to  act  with  England  in  settling  the  fate  of  the  Bel- 
gians ;  a  conference  of  the  powers  summoned  for  this  pur- 
pose in  lyondon. 

The  Conference  of  lyondon  recognized  the  independence 
of  Belgium  ( 20  Dec. )  and  direct  an  armistice  to  be  made 
(9  Jan.,  1831)  ;  it  fixed  the  boundaries  of  the  new  Belgian 
State  (20  Jan.),  excluding  from  it  Luxemburg,  Maestricht 
and  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt ;  discontent  of  the  Bel- 
gians with  these  frontiers,  which  were  eventually  slightly 
modified. 

The  Due  de  Nemours,  second  son  of  lyouis  Philippe, 
elected  King  of  the  Belgians  over  the  Duke  of  I^euchten- 
berg  and  the  Archduke  Charles  ;  he  refuses  the  throne  (17 
Feb.,  1 831)  ;  the  regency  of  Surlet  de  Chokier;  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  the  English  candidate,  elected  King  of 
the  Belgians  (4  June)  ;  he  accepts  the  throne  under  certain 
conditions  ;  the  Conference  of  London,  under  the  influence 
of  the  English  foreign  minister  Palmerston,  declares  Belgium 
neutral  under  the  guarantee  of  the  Powers. 

William  I  suddenly  breaks  the  armistice  and  invades  Bel- 
gium (i  Aug.,  1 831);  Leopold  appeals  for  aid  to  France; 
vigorous  action  of  the  Casimir  Perier  ministry  ;  a  French 
army  under  Gerard  occupies  Brussels  (12  Aug.,  1831);  the 
Belgians  accept  the  terms  fixed  by  the  Conference  of  Lon- 
don (15  Nov.,  1831);  the  states  of  Europe  generally  recog- 
nize Leopold. 

William  I  remains  obdurate  ;  the  English  and  French 
fleets  blockade  Holland  ;  and  Gerard's  army  is  directed  to 
take  the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  the  only  Dutch  fortress  remain- 
ing in  Belgium  ;  capture  of  Antwerp  (23  Dec,  1832). 

From  that  time  the  independence  of  Belgium  was  assured, 
though  William  I  still  tried  to  make  difficulties. 

The  nature  and  character  of  the  Belgian  constitution. 

The  effect  of  the  Revolutions  of  1830  in  Paris  and  Bel- 
gium in  Germany  ;  riots  aud  risings  in  Rhenish  Prussia 
where  the  Catholics  are  alarmed  at  the  Protestant  legislation 
of  Frederick  William  III,  and  where  the  idea  of  self-govern- 


—  32  — 

meiit  is  especially  strong  ;  insurrections  and  demands  for 
self-government  in  other  German  states,  notably  in  Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel  and  Saxony  ;  expulsion  of  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick by  his  people. 

Resurrection  of  the  young  German  movement  for  nation- 
ality and  self-government  ;  revival  of  the  Tugenbund,  the 
Burschenschaft,  etc. 

Metternich  attributes  these  political  risings  to  the  growth 
of  revolutionary  ideas,  and  attacks  constitutional  govern- 
ment as  a  form  of  republicanism  and  as  essentially  revolu- 
tionary. 

Metternich 's  ascendency  over  the  mind  of  Frederick 
William  III  ;  after  1830  he  appeals  to  the  Tsar  Nicholas 
and  hopes  to  revive  the  Holy  Alliance. 

The  Conferences  of  Toplitz  and  Munchen-Gratz  (1832); 
the  three  powers  guarantee  each  other's  rights  in  Poland  and 
take  measures  for  crushing  the  idea  of  Polish  nationality  : 
thc3^  also  resolve  against  the  doctrine  of  non-intervention 
and  declare  the  right  of  any  monarch  whose  position  is  as- 
sailed by  internal  rebellion  to  appeal  for  aid  to  other  monarchs. 

With  regard  to  Germany,  Metternich  gets  a  law  passed  in 
the  Federal  Diet  that,  in  case  of  disagreement  between  a  Ger- 
man ruler  and  his  people,  the  Confederation  could  interfere 
to  restore  the  power  of  the  ruler,  and  it  was  declared  that  no 
constitution  granted  by  himself  could  limit  the  right  of  a 
ruler  to  collect  taxes. 

The  effect  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  in  Italy;  the  Car- 
bonari force  a  series  of  insurrections  ;  the  Empress  Marie 
lyouise  is  driven  from  Parma,  and  Duke  Francis  IV  from 
Modena  (Feb.,  1831);  more  general  insurrections  in  the 
States  of  the  Church;  the  attitude  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI— Cap- 
ellari  ;  provisional  government  formed  for  the  lyCgations  at 
Bologna. 

Metternich  sends  Austrian  troops  to  restore  order  in  Parma, 
Modena,  and  the  States  of  the  Church;  the  Italian  insurgents 
look  foi-  help  to  France  ;  the  attitude  taken  by  I^ouis  Philippe 
and  Casimir  Perier  ;    the  French  occupy  Ancona  (22  Feb., 


—  33  — 

1832)  which  they  assert  their  right  to  hold  as  long  as  the 
Austrians  occupy  the  lyegations  ;    the  French  evacuate  An- 
cona  when  the  Austrians  withdraw  (Dec.  1838). 
Significance  of  the  movement  of  1830  in  Europe. 

Authorities :  On  the  Belgian  Revolution  see  Nothomh  Essai  his- 
torique  et  politique  sur  la  revolution  de  Belgique,  Jtiste  La  revolution 
de  la  Belgique,  1830,  and  Le  Roi  Leopold,  and  Bavay  Histoire  de  la 
revolution  beige  de  1830  ;  on  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Germany 
in  1830  see  Gervinus  and  Treitschke,  cited  under  Lecture  VI,  Bulle, 
Gescbichte  der  neuesten  ZeMf^ Deventer  Cinquante  ann^es  de  T his- 
toire fed^rale  de  I'Allemagne,  and  Biedetmann,  1815-1840 ;  Fiinf 
und  zwanzig  Jahre  Deutscher  Geschichte  ;  and  in  Italy  Thayer  Tire 
revolutionary  movement  in  Italy  from  1815  to  1848,  Tivaroni  Istoria 
della  dorainazione  Austriaco  in  Italia,  and  Mazzini  \45erks. 


I.ECTURE   -X. 


INSURRECTION  AND  CIVIL  WAR  IN  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 

The  condition  of  Portugal  after  the  Peninsular  War ;  ex- 
tent of  English  influence  in  the  regency  and  the  army  ;  the 
Portuguese  expel  the  English  (1820)  and  draw  up  a  demo- 
cratic constitution  (1822). 

John  VI  returns  to  Portugal,  when  Brazil  declares  its  in- 
dependence under  the  Emperor  Pedro  I  (1823) ;  on  the  death 
of  John  VI  the  Emperor  Pedro  issues  the  Charter  of  1826 
establishing  moderate  parliamentary  government  and  then 
addicates  the  throne  of  Portugal  in  favor  of  his  daughter 
Maria  da  Gloria ;  Canning  sends  an  English  force  to 
Portugal  to  maintain  order  which  is  withdrawn  in  1827. 

Dom  Miguel,  younger  brother  of  the  Emperor  Pedro,  who 
was  appointed  regent  in  1827,  seizes  the  throne  (1828);  he 
declares  himself  an  absolute  monarch,  and  persecutes  both 
the  moderate  adherents  to  the  Charter  of  1826,  and  the  more 
radical  supporters  of  the  Constitution  of  1822* 


—  34  — 

The  reign  of  Dom  Miguel ;  both  Chartists  and  Constitu- 
tionahsts  rise  in  rebelHon  (1829)  and  declare  in  favor  of 
Maria  da  Gloria  ;  the  Emperor  Pedro  resigns  the  throne  of 
Brazil  (1831)  and  comes  to  the  support  of  his  daughter's 
cause  ;  attitude  of  the  powers  of  Europe  to  the  civil  wars  in 
Portugal ;  many  English  officers  enter  the  Queen's  service  ; 
the  siege  of  Oporto  ;  Napier  destroys  Miguel's  fleet  off  Cape 
St.  Vincent  (5  July,  1833);  the  Pedroites  occupy  lyisbon 
(24  July). 

England,  France  and  Spain  recognize  Maria  da  Gloria  and 
form  the  Quadruple  Alliance  ;  Dom  Miguel  surrenders  to  a 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  army  at  Evora  Monte  (26  May, 
1834);  by  the  Convention  of  Evora  Monte  he  is  forever  ex- 
pelled from  Portugal. 

Death  of  the  ex -Emperor  Pedro  (24  Sept.,  1834);  troubled 
reign  of  Maria  da  Gloria  (1834-53);  constant  outbreaks  of 
civil  war  and  frequency  of  military  pronunciamentos  in 
favor  of  the  Charter  of  1826  and  the  Constitution  of  1822  ; 
revision  of  the  Charter  (1852). 

Revival  of  national  feeling  in  Portugal  ;  rejection  of 
Iberianist  ideas. 

The  latter  years  of  the  reign  of  F'erdinand' VII  of  Spain 
after  his  restoration  to  absolute  power  by  the  French  in  1823  ', 
the  question  of  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  Ferdinand  VII, 
by  a  Pragmatic  Sanction,  declares  his  elder  daughter, 
Isabella,  to  be  the  heir ;  opposition  of  Don  Carlos,  his 
brother,  who  claims  the  succession  as  male  heir. 

Death  of  Ferdinand  VII  (29  Sept.,  1833);  Isabella,  a 
child  of  three  years  old,  recognized  as  Queen  by  the  greater 
part  of  Spain,  under  the  regency  of  her  mother  Christina,  a 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  IV,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  char- 
acter of  Christina  ;  the  regency  is  recognized  by  England 
and  France. 

Don  Carlos  opposes  the  regency  and  declares  himself  king  ; 
his  cause  is  favored  by  the  clericals  and  by  the  mountaineers 
of  Northern  Spain  ;  outbreak  of  civil  war  ;  victories  of  the 
CarlistSj-  ^^c-  :  3  V^  t>^V j 


—  35  — 

Rivalry  of  England  and  France  in  the  affairs  of  the  Pen- 
insula ;  personal  rivalry  between  Palmerston  and  lyouis 
Philippe  ;  both  countries  prevented  by  jealousy  of  each  other 
from  openly  assisting  the  Christinists,  though  they  both  'as 
constitutional  monarchies  desire  her  success  over  the  Car- 
lists  ;  legions  of  volunteers  were  however  raised  both  in 
France  and  in  England  for  the  support  of  the  Christinists  ; 
services  of  Sir  De  Lacy  Evans. 

Perilous  position  of  the  Christinists  ;  the  military  revolt  of 
La  Granja  (13  Aug.,  1836);  Christina  summons  a  Cortes, 
which  promulgates  the  liberal  constitution  of  1837  ;  vigorous 
prosecution  of  the  war  against  the  Carlists  ;  victories  of 
Espartero  ;   defeat  and  flight  of  Don  Carlos  (1839). 

Espartero  forces  Christina  to  leave  Spain  (1840)  and  rules 
the  country  as  regent  for  three  years  ;  his  strong  government 
and  endeavor  to  put  down  brigandage  and  restore  the  pros- 
perity of  Spain. 

Narvaez  overthrows  Espartero  (1843),  recalls  Christina, 
and  declares  the  young  queen  Isabella  of  age. 

The  rivalry  between  England  and  France  for  influence  in 
Spain  becomes  more  pronounced ;  the  policy  of  lyouis 
Philippe  ;  the  question  of  the  Spanish  marriages  ;  Queen 
Isabella  married  to  her  cousin  Don  Francisco  d'Assisi,  Duke 
of  Cadiz,  and  her  sister  and  heiress  to  the  Due  de  Mont- 
pensier,  fifth  son  of  Louis  Philippe  (1846). 

Condition  of  Spain  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Isabella  ; 
constant  changes  in  the  ministry  between  Narvaez,  Espartero 
and  O'Donnell;  backwardness  of  Spain  in  material  and  in- 
tellectual progress. 

Characteristics  of  the  history  of  the  Peninsula  during  the 
period  succeeding  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  ;  unfitness  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  for  representative  government  ; 
the  meaning  and  effect  of  the  pronunciamentos  and  civil 
wars. 

Authorities :  Upon  the  civil  wars  in  Portugal  and  the  establishment 
of  representative  government  there,  see  i^(9rj^  Stephens  The  Story  of 
Portuaul,  Sin  it  h.  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saldanha,   Luz  Soriano, 


-36- 

Historia  da  Guerra  civil  e  do  Estabelecimento  do  Governo  Parlanientar 
em  Portugal,  Freire  de  Carvalho,  Memorias  para  a  historia  do  tempo 
que  duron  a  Usurpacao  de  Doni  Miji^uel,  Gomes  de  Barros  e  Cunha, 
Historia  da  Iviberdade  em  Portugal,  si\\(\\Bollaert,  The  Wars  of  Suc- 
cession in  Spain  and  Portugal  ;  upon  the  same  period  in  Spain,  see 
"^Hubbard,  Histoire  contettiporaine  de  I'Kspagne,  Los  Valles,  Don  Car- 
los^Bollaert,  and  Duncan  The  English  in  Spain,  or  the  War  of  Suc- 
cession between  1834  and  1840. 


LECTURE   XI. 


EUROPE  DURING  THE  REIGN  OF  LOUIS  PHILIPPE. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  ;  its  fouiidervS 
model  their  ideas  on  the  English  parliamentary  system,  in- 
cluding the  responsibility  of  ministers,  the  annual  voting  of 
supplies,  and  the  selection  of  ministers  from  the  legislature, 
but  the  upper  House  consisted  of  life  and  not  of  hereditary 
peers,  and  the  popular  House  was  elected  by  a  very  restricted 
franchise  consisting  only  of  large  taxpayers  and  members  of 
the  learned  professions,  allowing  votes  only  to  about  three 
hundred  thousand  persons. 

The  difficulties  of  the  position  of  lyouis  Philippe  ;  he  is 
opposed  on  the  one  side  by  the  L<egitimists,  who  caused  dis- 
turbances in  the  south,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Republicans, 
who  rise  in  insurrection  in  the  great  industrial  cities,  and 
especially  in  L^yons. 

Effect  of  the  foreign  policy  of  lyouis  Philippe'  and  of  his* 
refusal  to  help  the  insurgent  Belgians,  Poles  and  Italians  upon 
his  position  at  home. 

Death  of  Casimir  Perier  (16  May,  1832). 

Repression  of  a  Republican  rising  in  Paris  (6  June),  and 
arrest  of  the  Duchess  of  Berry  (7  Nov.),  who  had  en- 
deavored to  raise  I^a  Vendee  for  the  Legitimists. 

Commencement  of  parliamentary  government ;  formation 


—  37  — 

of  the  Soult  administration  ;  difficulties  in  the  way  of  es- 
tabHshing  regular  parliamentary  government  in  France  ; 
absence  of  definite  parliamentary  parties  ;  the  chief  parlia- 
mentary leaders,  Thiers,  Guizot,  the  Due  de  Broglie,  Mole, 
Berry  er,  and  Odilon  Bar  rot. 

Numerous  industrial  and  democratic  insurrections  in 
France  ;  Fieschi's  attempt  on  the  king's  life  (28  July,  1835); 
attempt  of  lyouis  Napoleon  upon  Strasbourg  (3  Oct.,  1836)  ; 
constant  ministerial  changes. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Ivouis  Philippe  ;  his  intimate  re- 
lations with  England  (1830-34)  ;  the  cause  of  this  close  alli- 
ance to  be  found  in  the  distrust  of  him  felt  by  the  other 
great  powers  ;  gradual  weakening  of  the  alliance  ;  Palmer- 
ston,  the  English  foreign  minister,  endeavors  to  keep  France 
from  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Spain  and  Portugal ;  I^ouis 
Philippe  then  weakens  in  his  attachment  for  England,  and 
negotiates  with  Austria,  endeavoring  to  obtain  an  Austrian 
archduchess  as  wife  for  his  eldest  son  ;  France  and  England 
come  into  collision  on  Colonial,  South  American,  Asiatic  and 
African  questions. 

The  occupation  and  gradual  conquest  of  Algeria  by 
France  ;  the  resistance  of  Abd-el-Kader  ;  the  campaigns  of 
Bugeaud. 

A  fresh  crisis  arises  in  the  Eastern  Question,  which 
nearly  causes  war  between  France  and  England  ;  the  Sultan 
Mahmud  II  had  not  forgiven  Mehemet  AH,  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt,  who  had  conquered  Syria  in  1832,  and  had  only  been 
prevented  from  overthrowing  the  Ottoman  Empire  by  the 
intervention  of  Russia  and  the  great  powers  ;  the  Turks  in- 
vade Syria,  but  are  defeated  by  the  Egyptians  near  Aleppo 
(20  June,  1839)  ;  death  of  Mahmud  II  (30  June),  and  ac- 
cession of  Abdul  Medjid. 

The  French  sympathize  with  Mehemet  Ali,  but  England  is 
afraid  that  his  success  will  overthrow  the  Turkish  Empire, 
and  therefore  agrees  with  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria  to  in- 
tervene on  behalf  of  the  Turks  ;  Palmerston  resolves  to 
break  the  Anglo-French  alliance  and  by  the  Treaty  of  I^on- 


—  38- 

don  (15  July,  1840)  agrees  with  the  other  three  great  powers 
to  act  without  France  ;  Napier  and  Stopford  bombard  Bey- 
rout  (12  Sept.)  and  Acre  (2  Nov.);  the  Egyptians  retire 
from  Sj^ria  ;  and  eventually  Mehemet  AH  is  forced  to  accept 
an  hereditary  title  to  Egypt- under  certain  conditions,  and  to 
abandon  all  other  claims  ;  the  great  powers  guarantee  the 
neutrality  of  the  Dardanelles  under  Turkish  sovereignty. 

Indignation  felt  in  France  against  England  ;  war  averted 
with  difficulty  ;  formation  of  the  Guizot  administration 
(29  Oct.,  1840),  which  remained  in  office  till  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Eouis  Philippe. 

Growth  of  the  Napoleonic  legend  in  France  ;  attempt  of 
lyouis  Napoleon  on  Boulogne  (5  Aug.,  1840)  ;  the  remains  of 
the  first  Napoleon  brought  to  France  and  interred  at  Paris 
(15  Dec-,  1840). 

Changes  brought  about  in  the  political  attitude  and  con- 
ditions of  England  during  the  reign  of  Eouis  Philippe  ;  the 
passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  (1832)  transfers  political  power 
from  the  aristocracy  to  the  middle  classes,  and  subsequent 
reforms  make  the  administration  more  democratic  ;  the  acces- 
sion of  Victoria  (1837)  finally  separates  English  from  con- 
tinental interests,  for  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover  passes  to 
her  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  who  ascends  the  throne 
as  Ernest  I  ;  importance  of  this  event. 

Marriage  of  Victoria  to  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  ; 
his  character,  and  interest  in  foreign  politics  ;  the  Queen's 
first  ministers,  Melbourne  and  Palmerston  ;  influence  of 
Wellington  ;  Sir  Robert  Peel  comes  into  power  (1841)  ;  his 
endeavors  for  peace. 

The  question  of  Spanish  marriages  ;  Louis  Philippe  tricks 
the  English  ministry,  and  after  preventing  the  marriage  of 
Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  to  the  English  candidate,  Prince 
Ivcopold  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  he  secures  the  marriage  of 
the  young  Queen  to  her  cousin  Don  Francisco  and  of  her 
only  sister  to  his  own  fifth  son,  the  Due  de   Montpensier 

(1845). 
Indignation   of    the   English   court  and   ministry   at  the 


—  39  — 

Spanish  marriages  ;  lyord  John  Russell  comes  into  office 
with  Palmerston  as  foreign  minister  (1846),  resolved  to  iso- 
late Louis  Philippe  ;  the  new  government  refuses  to  discour- 
age the  revolutionary  movements  on  the  point  of  breaking 
out  all  over  Europe. 

Position  of  Austria  during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  ; 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Francis  and  the  accession  of  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  I  (1835)  strengthens  the  position  of 
Metternich  ;  his  close  relations  with  the  Tsar  Nicholas  ; 
occupation  of  Cracow  (1836-41)  by  Austria  ;  annexation  of 
Cracow  by  Austria  (1846)  ;  Metternich's  continued  efforts 
to  repress  all  movements  for  parliamentary  reform  or  national 
independence  in  Italy  and  Germany  ;  Metternich's  friend- 
ship with  Russia  grows  warmer  as  his  influence  over  Prussia 
decreases  after  the  accession  of  Frederick  William  IV. 

Insignificent  part  played  by  Prussia  during  the  latter  years 
of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  III  in  European  politics  ; 
the  king's  fidelity  to  the  ideas  of  the  Holy  Alliance  and  to 
the  settlement  reached  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  he  re- 
fuses to  grant  to  the  Prussians  the  constitution  he  had 
promised  ;  under  Metternich's  influence  he  opposed  liberal 
and  parliamentary  ideas  all  over  Germany  ;  discontent  caused 
in  Rhenish  Prussia  by  his  Protestant  sympathies  ;  death  of 
Frederick  William  III  (7  June,  1840). 

In  spite  of  this  opposition  to  liberal  ideas  Prussia  was  re- 
garded as  the  one  power  which  could  unite  Germany  ;  this 
doctrine  held  especiall}^  in  Northern  Germany,  fostered  by 
the  universities,  and  encouraged  by  Prussian  statesmen  and 
administrators  ;  excellence  of  the  Prussian  administrative 
and  military  system  ^  maintenance  of  the  system  of  Scharn- 
horst  ;  Prussia  becomes  especially  the  guardian  of  the  smaller 
states  of  Germany  ;  she  takes  the  first  step  towards  hegemo- 
ny by  the  formation  of  the  ZoUverein. 

The  history  of  the  ZoUverein  or  Customs-union  ;  the  ideas 
and  arguments  of  List ;  the  Federal  Diet  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  refuses  to  establish  a  Customs-union  ;  forma- 
tion of  the  ZoUverein  (1833)  ;  its  chief  members  Prussia, 


--  40  — 

Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Saxony,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and  the  petty  states  of  the  Thuringian  Union  ;  joined 
by  Baden,  Nassau,  and  Hesse- Hombnrg  (1835),  Frankfort 
(1836),  Brunswick  (184 1 )  and  Luxemburg  (1842)  ;  opposed 
to  it  was  the  Steuerverein,  consisting  of  Hanover,  Oldenburg 
and  Schaumburg-I/ippe,  as  well  as  to  the  tw^o  Mecklenburgs, 
and  the  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen  and  lyiibeck  ; 
commercial  and  political  importance  of  the  Zollverein. 

Accession  of  Frederick  William  IV  as  King  of  Prussia 
(1840)  ;  his  character;  his  hatred  for  France;  his  liberal 
ideas  ;  he  places  Eichhorn  and  Boy  en  in  office,  allows  exiled 
liberals  to  return,  patronizes  German  literature  and  gives  a 
measure  of  liberty  to  the  press  ;  he  forms  a  States- General 
out  of  the  Provincial  States  with  taxing  and  consultative 
powers  only  (3  Feb.,  1847). 

Civil  war  in  Switzerland  ;  the  desire  of  the  majority  of 
the  Swiss  Cantons  for  a  stronger  federal  bond  than  that 
devised  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  changes  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  individual  cantons ;  introduction,  especially  since 
1830,  of  democratic  ideas  ;  cantonal  revolutions  ;  formation 
of  the  Sonderbund,  by  which  the  seven  Catholic  cantons  of 
Lucerne,  Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Glarus,  Zug,  Fribourg, 
and  Valais  made  an  armed  union  to  resist  centralization  and 
defend  the  Jesuits  ;  the  majority  in  the  Federal  Diet,  presided 
over  by  Ochsenbein,  decrees  the  dissolution  of  the  Sonder- 
bund (20  July,  1847)  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits; 
attitude  of  the  great  powers ;  mutual  apprehensions  of 
Louis  Philippe  and  Metternich  ;  they  deny  the  right  of  the 
Swiss  to  alter  the  constitution  laid  down  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  ;  the  Sonderbund  declares  its  intention  to  resist 
(29  Oct.,);  the  Federal  Diet  declares  war  (6  Nov.,); 
General  Dufour  defeats  the  troops  of  the  Sonderbund  and 
occupies  their  cantons,  which  submit  (29  Nov.)  ;  declara- 
tion of  the  new  Federal  constitution,  giving  greater  strength 
to  the  Federal  power  and  organizing  a  Swiss  army,  but  recog- 
nizing cantonal  rights  in  internal  administration. 

General  apprehension  of  democratic  risings  felt  in   1847  ; 


r:  tM^it>   h.iAii^r^iA  'KM^-tnA^  ^A/sei  '^wr^  i/\  "U  mT>\  A^4  ''^^%^fU  Utfdu^iU,  Uoh'^  vr. 


t'^i^i^  ^  do^t^UZt^iteutA^ 


—  41  — 

preparations  for  revolution  ;   the  persistence  of   liberal  and 
national  ideas. 

Authorities :  In  addition  to  the  works  on  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe  by  Thureau-Dangin,  Capefigue,  VHaussonville,  Hillebrand 
and  Louis  Blanc,  cited  under  Lecture  VIII,  see,  for  the  later  part  of 
his  reign  and  for  other  points  touched  on  in  this  XecixxYQ^'Duvergier  de 
Hauranne,  Histoire  du  gouvernement  parlementaire  en  Franc^ T^^g-  l^^^-^^,'o^, 
nault,  Histoire  de  huit  ans  (1840-48),  Guizot,  Memoires  pour  servir  a 
riiistoire  de  mon  temps,  Odilon  Barrot,  Memoires,  Mazade,  Monsieur 
Thiers,  Thiers,  Discours  parlementaires,  Berryer,  Discours  parlenien- 
taires,  Due  de  Broglie,  Souvenirs,  Talleyrand,  Memoires,  Rousset, 
Conquete  de  I'Algerie,  and  Ideville,  Le  Marechal  Bugeaud.  For  the 
history  of  English  foreign  policy  see^(?  Strange,  Correspondence  of 
IvU^,  Lord  Grey  and  the  Princess  Lievei^j;  Balling  and  Ashley,  Life  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  Torrens,  Life  of  Lord  Melbourne,  Walpole,  Life  of  Lord 
John  Russell,  Gordon,  Lord  Aberdeen,  Greville,  Memoirs,  Stockmar, 
Memoirs  and  Martin,  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort.  For  the  history  and 
development  of  the  Zollverein  see  Treitschke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im 
neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  Weber,  Der  Deutsche  Zollverein;  Geschichte 
seiner  Bntstehung  und  Kntwickelung,  and  Festenberg-Packisch, 
Geschichte  des  ZoUvereins  ;  for  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  Frede- 
rick William  IV  of  Prussia,  Ranke,  Aus  dem  Briefwechsel  Friedrich 
Wilhelms  IV  mit  Bunsen  and  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV  (in  his  Werke, 
Vols.  50-52),  Wagener,  Die  Politik  Friedrich  Wilhelms  IV  and 
Biedermann,  Dreissig  Jahre  Deutsche  Geschichte ;  and  for  the  war 
with  the  Sonderbund,  Adams,  The  Swiss  Confederation,  Cretineau- 
Joly,  Histoire  du  Sonderbund,  Ddndliker,  Geschichte  der  Schweiz,  and 
Vulliemin,  Histoire  de  la  Confederation  Suisse. 


LECTURE  XII. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  FRANCE. 

Growing  unpopularity  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  during  the 
administration  of  Guizot ;  the  government  alienates  moder- 
ate liberals  by  refusing  to  grant  the  smallest  measure  of 
electoral  reform  ;  while  its  rigidly  Bourgeois  and  Capitalist 
sympathies  exasperated  the  Democratic  and  I^abor  parties. 


—  42  — 

The  growth  of  democratic  and  socialist  ideas  among  the 
working  classes  of  France  ;  the  influence  of  Saint-Simon, 
Fourier,  Prudhon,  etc. 

The  movement  for  parliamentary  reform  and  democratic 
revolution  in  1847  5  the  banquets  and  toasts  to  liberty, 
equality  and  fraternity  ;  Odilon  Barrot  and  Ledru-Rollin, 

The  Revolution  of  February,  1848;  riots  in  Paris  (22  Feb.); 
resignation  of  Guizot  (23  Feb.,  1848)  ;  appointment  of 
Bugeaud  as  commandant  of  Paris  ;  barricades  erected  in  the 
streets  ;  I^ouis  Philippe  forbids  Bugeaud  to  act  ;  he  abdicates 
the  throne  (24  Feb.)  and  leaves  France. 

Significance  of  the  Revolution  of  February  ;  overthrow  of 
the  Bourgeois  Monarchy. 

The  mob  of  Paris  bursts  into  the  Chambers  and  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  ;  proclamation  of  the  Republic  ;  rejection  of  the  idea 
of  the  regency  to  be  held  by  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  during 
the  minority  of  her  son,  the  Comte  de  Paris  ;  formation  of 
the  Provisional  Government,  consisting  of  six  leading  re- 
publican deputies,  three  journalists  and  a  working  man, 
e.g.,  Dupont  de  I'Kure,  Arago,  I^amartine,  Ledru-Rollin, 
Cremieux,'  and  Marie,  deputies,  Marrast,  lyouis  Blanc,  and 
Flofon,  journalists,  and  Albert;  Garnier- Pages  installed  as 
Mayor  of  Paris. 

Importance  and  conduct  of  Lamartine  as  provisional  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs,  and  of  lyedru-Rollin  as  provisional 
minister  of  the  interior  ;  Lamartine  assures  Europe  that  the 
revolution  in  Paris  was  not  intended  to  encourage  revolution 
elsewhere,  while  Ledru-Rollin  imitated  the  extreme  policy 
of  the  Convention,  attempted  to  appoint  pro-consuls  and 
established  public  workshops. 

The  extreme  republican  party  in  Paris  endeavors  to  influ- 
ence the  elections,  which  were  taking  place  over  France,  in 
favor  of  the  radicals  by  constant  riots  ;  the  riot  of  16  April, 
1848  ;  General  Changarnier  placed  in  command  of  the  garri- 
son and  National  Guard  of  Paris  ;  he  defeats  the  insurgents. 

Meeting  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (27  April,  1848)  ; 
the  moderate  character  and  antecedents  of  the  majority  of  its 


—  43  — 

members  ;  it  declares  that  France  is  a  Republic  and  prepares 
to  draw  up  a  republican  constitution  on  conservative  lines  ; 
it  maintains  the  Provisional  Government  in  office  ;  riot  of 
15  May  in  Paris,  and  attempt  of  the  democratic  party  to 
overthrow  the  Constituent  Assembly  ;  suppression  of  the 
riot  and  flight  of  lyouis  Blanc. 

Critical  position  in  Paris  ;  the  working  classes  of  the  Fau- 
bourg Saint  Antoine  prepare  for  insurrection  ;  the  moderate 
republicans  resolve  to  resist  ;  General  Cavaignac  appointed 
provisional  War  Minister  ;  he  concentrates  regular  troops  in 
Paris. 

Severe  fighting  in  Paris  (23-26  June)  ;  storming  of  the 
barricades  by  the  troops  ;  Paris  declared  in  a  state  of  siege  ; 
supreme  executive  authority  entrusted  to  Cavaignac  ;  sup- 
pression of  the  radical  party  in  Paris. 

The  Constituent  Assembly,  now  that  peace  was  restored, 
proceeds  to  draw  up  a  republican  constitution  ;  the  Constitu- 
tion'of  1848  places  the  supreme  executive  authority  in  the 
hands  of  a  president  of  the  republic,  elected  directly  by  the 
people,  and  the  legislative  authority  in  the  hands  of  a  single 
Chamber. 

lyouis  NapoleOn,  son  of  lyouis  Bonaparte  king  of  Holland 
and  Hortense  de  Beauharnais,  and  nephew  of  the  first 
Napoleon,  is  elected  President  of  the  Republic  (10  Dec, 
1848)  ;  he  receives  5,562,834  votes,  Cavaignac  1,469,166 
votes,  ly^dru-RoUin  377,236  votes,  Raspail  37,106,  and 
I^amartine  21,000. 

Character  and  previous  career  of  Louis  Napoleon  ;  diffi- 
culties of  his  position  ;  he  is  distrusted  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  and  both  feared  and  hated  by  the  extreme 
republicans. 

Foreign  policy  of  the  Prince  President  ;  he  sends  a  French 
army  under  Oudinot  to  Rome,  which  after  a  repulse 
(20  April)  occupies  Rome  (3  July),  overthrows  the  Roman 
Republic  and  reestablishes  the  authority  of  the  Pope. 

Dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  instalment 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  (28  May,  1849);  the  position  of 


—  44  — 

parties  in  the  new  Assembly  ;  the  majority  were  moderates, 
in  favor  of  parliamentary  government  after  the  English  sys- 
tem, believers  in  limited  monarchy,  and  very  suspicious  of 
the  Prince  President,  whom  they  suspected  of  planning  to 
restore  the  Empire  ;  the  minority  called  itself  the  Mountain, 
and,  under  the  leadership  of  Ledru-Rollin,  hoped  to  .establish 
a  democratic  republic. 

The  deputies  of  the  Mountain  appeal  to  the  people  of 
Paris;  insurrection  of  13  June,  1849;  arrest  of  the  deputies 
of  the  Mountain  ;  they  are  expelled  from  the  AvSsembly  ; 
escape  of  Ledru-Rollin. 

The  majority  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  becomes  frankly 
reactionar}'-,  and  endeavors  to  establish  a  bourgeois  republic  ; 
influence  of  Thiers,  Berry er,  Mole,  Montalembert,  and  De 
Broglie ;  by  the  law  of  31  May,  1850,  the  suffrage  is  re- 
stricted to  three  years'  residents  in  a  commune  or  canton, 
practically  disenfranchising  the  working  classes  ;  declaration 
of  Thiers  on  this  subject. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  on  adjourning  left  a  permanent 
commission  of  deputies  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  the 
government  ;  disgust  of  the  Prince  President  at  this  action  ; 
he  resolves  to  appeal  to  France  ;  his  first  provincial  tour. 

The  political  position  in  185 1  ;  the  incurable  distrust 
reigning  between  the  Prince  President  and  the  Assembl>  ; 
constant  struggle  between  the  executive  and  legislative" 
authority,  and  frequent  changes  of  ministry. 

The  Prince  President,  having  made  himself  popular  in 
France  by  provincial  tours,  declares  himself  in  favor  of  uni- 
versal suffrage  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  ;  his  ex- 
planation of  the  ideas  of  the  Empire  ;  he  demands  that  the 
Assembly  should  repeal  the  law  of  31  May,  1850  (4  Nov., 
1851). 

The  Coup  d'fitat  of  2  Dec,  1851  ;  the  Prince  President 
declares  the  Legislative  Assembly  dissolved,  universal  suf- 
frage reestablished,  and  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege  ;  the  ad- 
visers of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  his  agents  ;  his  half  brother, 
the  Due  de  Morny,   General  de  Saint  Arnaud,  Minister  of 


—  45  — 

ft 

War,  and  M.  de  Maupas,   Prefect  of  Police  ;  arrest  of  the 

leading  members  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  ;  the  troops 
shoot  down  opponents  of   the  Coup  d'fitat  in  Paris. 

The  Prince  President  submits  a  new  Constitution  to  a 
plebiscite  of  the  people,  establishing  a  strong  executive,  and 
institutions  resembling  those  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Em- 
pire ;  the  Constitution  accepted  (21  Dec.)  by  7,481,231  votes 
out  of  8,165,630  votes,  and  promulgated  14  Jan.,  1852. 

The  Prince  President's  provincial  tour  of  1852  ;  his  recep- 
tion ;  enthusiasm  in  the  army  ;  he  declares  at  Bordeaux 
(9  Oct.)  "  ly' Empire,  c'est  lapaix"  ;  the  Senate  votes  the 
re- establishment  of  the  Empire  (7  Nov.);  it  is  voted  by  a 
plebiscite  (22  Nov.),  and  the  Prince  President  declares  him- 
self Napoleon  III,  Emperor  of  the  French  (i  Dec,  1852.) 

Authorities:  On  the  history  of  the  second  French_Republic,  see  p  j, 
^Gamier- Pag h,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  \'6^CTIpuis  Blanc,  His^ 
toire  de  la  Revolution  de  1 848,/^Z^rtwmr?z«?7T5istoire  de  la  Revolution  "^^ 
de  1848,  Pierre,  Histoire  de  la  Republique  de  1848,  with  Normanby, 
A  Year  of  Revolution,  Odilon  Barrot,  Menioires,  Falloux,  Memoires 
d'un  Royaliste,  Berryer,  Discours  Parlementaires,  Thiers,  Discours 
Parlenientaires,  and  Veron,  Memoires  d'un  Bourgeois  ;  for  the  coup 
d'etat  of  1851,  see  Maupas,  Memoires  sur  le  Second  Empire,  Kinglake^ 
The  invasion  of  the  Crimea,  Victor  Hugo,  Histoire  d'un  Crime,  Thiot^ 
Le  Coup  d'Ktat,  Jerrold,  Life  of  Napoleon  III,  Delord,  Histoire  du 
Second  Empire,  and  Viel  Castel^  Memoires. 


LECTURE    XIII. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  ITALY. 

The  condition  of  Italy  from  the  suppression  of  the  insur- 
rectionary movement  of  1830  by  Austria,  to  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolutions  of  1848  ;  the  work  of  the  Carbonari  and  of 
other  secret  societies  ;  constant  attempts  made  upon  the  lives 
of  the  Italian  princes,  and  repeated  outbreaks  in  different 
cities  and  country  districts. 


-46- 

Double  tendency  to  b?  perceived  in  the  popular  movements 
in  Italy  ;  with  regard  to  government  the  middle  classes  de- 
siired  representative  constitutions  and  limited  monarchy,  while 
the  secret  societies  advocated  pure  democracy  ;  with  regard 
to  the  unity  of  Italy,  one  section  desired  a  federal  govern- 
ment either  monarchical  or  republican,  while  the  other  fa- 
vored an  Italy,  one  and  indivisible,  either  monarchical  or 
republican  ;  these  diiferent  tendencies  prevented  partisans  of 
the  national  spirit  and  of  political  revolution  from  acting 
harmoiously  together  ;  the  most  influential  writer  and  thinker 
was  Mazzini,  but  his  advanced  republican  ideas  made  him 
obnoxious  to  moderate  men. 

Condition  of  the  different  Itatlan  states  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolutionary  movement  iu  1848  ;  the  severe  and  arbi- 
trary government  of  Naples  and  Sicily  under  Ferdinand  II, 
afterwards  called  King  Bomba  ;  unpopularity  of  the  Aus- 
trian government  in  Lombardy  and  Venetia  ;  Parma  and 
Modena,  ruled  by  the  Empress  Marie  lyouise  and  Duke 
Francis  V,  were  entirely  under  Austrian  influence  ;  death  of 
Marie  lyouise  (18  Dec,  1847),  and  accession  of  Charles  II, 
formerly  Duke  of  Lucca  ;  the  government  of  Leopold  II, 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  ;  he  annexes  Lucca  ( 1 845 ) ,  and 
grants  a  constitution  (1847)  ;  Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sar- 
dinia, was  desirous  of  setting  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
national  Italian  movement,  but  he  was  afraid  of  the  republi- 
cans and  the  Carbonari  ;  he  favored  parliamentary  govern- 
ment and  granted  a  constitution  to  his  kingdom  in  1846. 

The  worst  governed  provinces  of  Italy  were  those  of  the 
States  of  the  Church,  in  which  Pope  Gregory  XVI  ruled  in 
the  most  arbitrary  manner  with  cardinals,  priests  and  bishops 
as  his  only  ministers  and  administrators ;  yet  it  was  in  the 
States  of  the  Church  that  the  first  impulsion  was  given  to 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1 848  ;  death  of  Gregory  XVI , 
(i  June,  1846). 

Election  of  Pope  Pius  IX — Mastai-Ferretti — (16  June, 
1846);  his  known  liberal  and  national  ideas  ;  his  reforms  in 
internal  administration  ;    he  reorganizes  the  tribunals,  estab- 


—  47  — 

lishes  munincipal  government,  permits  the  raising  of  civic 
guards,  and  allows  a  measure  of  liberty  to  the  press  ;  he  pro- 
poses a  Customs  Union  between  the  States  of  the  Church, 
Tuscany  and  Sardinia  ;  he  calls  an  assembly  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  new  government  ;  Metternich  protests  against  the 
reforming  policy  of  Pius  IX  ;  but  the  people  of  Rome  ac- 
cuse him  of  not  going  far  enough. 

Outbreak  of  insurrection  at  Palermo  (12  Jan.,  1848)  which 
spreads  through  the  whole  of  vSicily. 

Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  February  in  Italy  ;  the  people 
of  Milan  rise  in  insurrection  and  expd  the  Austrian  garrison 
(11-15  Mch.,  1848  );  formation  of  a  provisional  government 
which  appoints  Garibaldi  commandant  of  its  troops  ;  similar 
movement  in  Venice  (16-22  Mch.),  where  Daniel  Manin  is 
elected  Dictator  ;  Francis  V  driven  from  Modena  ;  Charles  II 
driven  from  Parma  (9  Apr.). 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia,  summoned  by  all  North- 
ern Italy,  sets  himself  at  the  head  of  the  National  move- 
ment ;  he  enters  Milan  (26  Mch.);  concentration  of  the  Aus- 
trian troops  under  Radetzky ;  the  Austrians  defeated  at 
Goito  (8  Apr.);  lycopold  of  Tuscany  compelled  by  his  peo- 
ple to  send  troops  to  assist  Charles  Albert ;  Ferdinand  II, 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  forced  to  grant  a  constitution  to 
Naples,  and  to  send  a  fleet  to  assist  Venice  and  an  army 
under  F^e  to  join  Charles  Albert  ;  the  papal  troops,  under 
Durand'o,  join  the  Sardinians  ;  Charles  Albert  takes  Pes- 
chiera  ;  desperate  position  of  Radetzky,  who  asks  for  re- 
inforcements. 

Desperate  position  of  the  Austrians  in  Italy  ;  terms  offered 
to  Charles  Albert  ;  he  declines  the  intervention  of  England 
and  France. 

Ferdinand  II  withdraws  his  constitution  and  dissolves  the 
Neapolitan  parliament  (15  May);  he  vigorously  pursues  the 
war  with  the  Sicilian  insurgents,  and  calls  back  his  fleet  from 
Venice,  and  his  army  ;  nevertheless,  Pepe  with  3,000  men 
throws  himself  into  Venice,  of  which  he  takes  military  com- 
mand. 


-48- 

Pope  Pius  IX  disavows  the  action  of  General  Durando  ; 
he  issues  a  Fundamental  Statute  for  the  goverment  of  his 
states,  establishing  lay  government  and  ministerial  responsi- 
bility (14  Mch.);  Mamiani  appointed  Minister  of  the  Inter- 
ior (4  May). 

Radetzky,  joined  by  Nugent,  defeats  Charles  Albert  at 
Custozza  (25  July)  and  occupies  Milan  (6  Aug.)  ;  armistice 
proclaimed  between  Sardinia  and  Austria  (9  Aug.)  ;  gallant 
defence  of  Venice. 

The  Austrian  victories  encourage  the  other  monarchs  of 
Italy;  the  Pope  dismisses  Mamiani  (14  Sept.)  ;  appoint- 
ment of  Rossi,  who  desires  to  form  an  Italian  Federation  ; 
assassination  of  Rossi  (15  Nov.)  ;  the  Pope  escapes  to  Gaeta 
(24  Nov.)  ;  provisional  government  appointed  in  Rome 
under  the  triumvirate  of  MazziTir,~'^Gioberti  and  Cernuschi- 
(11  Dec. )  ;  meeting  of  the  Roman  Constituent  Assembly  ; 
proclamation  of  the  Roman  Republic  (9  Feb.,  1849)  ;  the 
triumvirs  appoint  Garibaldi  commander-in-chief  ;  Pius  IX 
solemnly  appeals  to  the  Catholic  rulers  of  Austria,  France, 
Spain,  and  Naples  for  help  (18  Feb.  1849). 

Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Sicily  ;  England  recognizes 
the  revolutionary  government  of  Palermo  (6  Sept.,  1848); 
the  Sicilians  offer  the  throne  to  the  second  son  of  Charles 
Albert. 

.  Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Tuscany  ;  Montanelli  ap- 
pointed chief  minister  (26  Oct.)  ;  a  liberal  constitution 
granted  ;  flight  of  the  Grand  Duke  I^eopold  II  to  Gaeta  ; 
the  Florentine  Republic  proclaimed  under  the  triumvirate  of 
Montanelli,  Guerrazzi,  and  Mazzoni. 

Difficult  position  of  Charles  Albert ;  he  is  forced  to  form 
a  radical  ministry  under  Rattazzi  (15  Dec,  1848);  he  de- 
clares the  armistice  at  an  end  and  appeals  to  united  Italy 
(12  Mch.,  1849)  ;  Radetzky  utterly  defeats  Charles  Albert 
at  Novara  (23  Mch.,  1849)  ;  Charles  Albert  abdicates  in 
favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel  ;  favorable  terms  of 
peace  granted  to  the  Sardinians  (6  Aug.,  1849). 

Triumphant  progress  of  the  Austrians  ;  they  restore  Fran- 


dt\  rVvvf.  M^c.  Uvi^^'a*  il7«"i^  "fc  ^^'^*  ^:*»^a<.;»A^;<A<  di£jWa^^X,^'c^,/j'i,6-^f,3i^^ 


^  49  — 

cis  V  to  Modeiia  and  Charles  III  to  Parma  ;  they  overthrow 
the  Florentine  Republic  and  re-establish  the  Grand  Duke 
lycopold  II  (28  July),  who  withdraws  the  constitution  he 
had  granted;  capitulation  of  Venice  to  the  Austrians   (24 

Aug.). 

Ferdinand  II  cruelly  suppresses  the  Sicilian  insurrection. 

The  Prince  President  of  the  French  Republic,  afraid  of 
allowing  Austria  too  much  predominance  in  Italy,  sends  a 
French  army  under  Oudinot  to  Rome  ;  repulse  of  the  French 
(30  Apr.);  the  siege  of  Rome;  the  French  capture  Rome 
(3  July)  ;  Garibaldi  withdraws  to  the  mountains  where  his 
troops  are  cut  up  by  the  Austrians  ;  Pius  IX  returns  to 
Rome  (12  Apr.,  1850)  and  re-establishes  the  Papal  govern- 
ment under  the  charge  of  Cardinal  Antonelli ;  a  French 
garrison  retained  in  Rome. 

Causes  of  the  entire  and  disastrous  failure  of  the  Italian 
revolutions  in  1848  ;  Victor  Emmanuel  alone  maintains  par- 
liamentary government  in  his  dominions. 

Authorities  :  On  the  ItaUau  insurrection,  see  Can^u,  Delia  Indi- 
pendenza  Italiana,  Ricciardiy  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'ltalie,  Ulloa^ 
Guerre  de  I'lndependance  Italienne,  Perrens,  Deux  Ans  de  Revolution 
en  Italie,  Pepe^  Memoirs  and  Histoire  des  Revolutions  et  des  Guerres 
d'ltalie  en  1847,  1848,  et  1849,  Balleydier,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de 
Rome,  Bianchi,  Storia  documentata  della  diplomazia  Europea  in 
Ix.sXxQ.f'Costa  de  Beauregard,  lyes  dernieres  annees  du  Roi  Charles  Al- 
bert, Rattazzi,  Ratazzi  et  son  Temps,  Mazzini,  Works,  Martin,  Dan- 
iel Msin'm, Montanellt,  Memoir^fVantu,  Storia  ragionata  e  documentata 
della  rivoluzione  Lombarda,  CaUaneo,  ly'insurrection  de  Milan  en 
1848,  Garibaldi,  Memoirs,  Mario,  Garibaldi  e  i  suoi  tempi,  Sirao 
Storia  della  revoluzioni  d' Italia  dal  1846  al  1866,  and  Hiibfier,  Une 
Anuee  de  ma  Vie.  „    ,     . 


I^KCTURE  XIV 


THE  REVOIvUTlON  OF  1848  IN  AUSTRIA. 

Internal  condition  of  the  Austrian  dominions  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I  ;  the  home  policy  of 
Metternich  ;  he  encourages  the  national  spirit  in  the  different 


—  50  — 

provinces  of  the  Empire  in  order  to  play  off  one  province 
against  another,  but  he  sternly  represses  all  aspirations  to 
self -go  vern  ment . 

The  growth  of  national  spirit  was  specially  perceptible  in 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  but  it  was  also  to  be  found  in  smaller 
districts,  such  as  Transylvania,  Croatia  and  Galicia  ;  condi- 
tion of  the  German  provinces  ;  the  diverse  nationalities  of 
which  the  Empire  was  composed,  prevented  any  tendency 
towards  union,  and  encouraged  schemes  of  federation  or  of 
entire  independence. 

The  national  spirit  in  Hungary  ;  the  amount  of  local  self- 
government  allowed  to  the  Magyars  ;  the  growth  of  Magyar 
literature  and  of  attachment  to  the  Magyar  language  ;  the 
national  spirit  in  Hungary  becomes,  under  the  guidance  of 
its  men  of  letters,  also  democratic  ;  the  Diet  of  1833  abolishes 
serfdom  ;  attitude  of  the  Magyars  to  other  nationalities 
within  the  limits  of  Hungary  ;  influence  of  Szechenyi,  Kos- 
suth, Deak  and  Petofi. 

The  national  spirit  in  Bohemia  ;  revival  of  the  Czech 
language  and  literature  ;  the  Czechs  desire  to  place  them- 
selves at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  Slavs  ;  in  Bohemia  as  in 
Hungary  the  national  spirit  becomes  also  democratic,  and  de- 
mands are  made  not  only  for  national  but  also  for  popular 
government ;  influence  "of  Dobrouski,  Kollar  and  Polacky. 

The  German  spirit  concentrated  in  Vienna,  where  demo- 
cratic ideas,  resembling  those  in  vogue  among  the  working 
classes  in  Paris  and  Berlin  take  deep  root. 

Effect  of  the  news  of  the  Revolution  of  February  in 
Austria  ;  insurrection  of  13  March  in  Vienna  ;  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  dismisses  Metternich  from  office  ;  the  disgraced 
minister  escapes  to  England  ;  Ficquelmont  appointed  min- 
ister ;  the  Emperor  promises  a  representative  constitution. 

Effect  of  the  fall  of  Metternich  upon  the  Austrian  prov- 
vinces  ;  general  demands  for  liberty  and  popular  government  ; 
insurrections  in  Croatia,  Bohemia  and  Galicia. 

The  Hungarian  Diet  seizes  the  opportunity  to  demand  the 
formation  of  a  responsible  Hungarian  ministry  with  entire 


—  51  - 

self-government ;  the  Emperor  yields  (17  Mch.)  and  appoints 
lyouis  Batthyany  prime  minister,  with  Kossuth  as  Minister  of 
the  Interior ;  delight  of  the  Magyars  at  this  success  ;  a  Con- 
stituent Diet  is  summoned  to  draw  up  a  constitution  for  Hun- 
gary. 

The  Emperor  further  promises  constitutions  and  self-gov- 
ernment to  the  Slavonic  Provinces  (28  Mch. — 8  Apr.); 
the  Czechs  summon  a  Pan-Slavonic  assembly  to  meet  at 
Prague  on  31   May. 

Dissatisfaction  of  the  people  of  Vienna  at  the  prospect  of 
the  Austrian  Empire  being  split  into  autonomous  provinces  ; 
disgust  of  the  working  classes  at  the  non-recognition  of  dem- 
ocratic principles  ;  second  popular  insurrection  in  Vienna 
(15  May);  dismissal  of  Ficquelmont,  and  convocation  of  a 
Constituent  Assembly  for  the  whole  Austrian  Empire  to 
meet  in  Vienna  ;  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  escapes  to  Inns- 
bruck, and  throws  himself  upon  the  fidelity  of  the  Tyrolese. 

Desperate  position  of  the  Austrian  monarchy  ;  seeming 
approach  of  disintegration  ;  the  strength  of  the  opposition  to 
Austria  in  Italy,  Hungary  and  Bohemia  ;  attitude  of  the 
Parliament  of  Frankfort  to  the  Hapsburgs  ;  desire  expressed 
to  keep  Austria  out  of  re-constituted  Germany. 

From  the  diversity  of  aims  of  the  different  revolutions, 
the  Austrian  monarchy  iinds  safety  ;  the  Emperor  Ferdinand 
to  please  the  Germans,  resolves  to  act  vigorously  against  the 
Slavs  ;  Prince  Windischgratz  bombards  Prague  (12-14  June) 
and  breaks  up  the  Pan -Slavonic  Congress ;  reduction  of 
Bohemia  to  obedience. 

Despatch  of  an  Austrian  army  under  Nugent  to  re-enforce 
Radetzky  in  Italy  ;  Jellachich,  the  newly  appointed  Ban  of 
Croatia  instructed  to  raise  the  Croatians  against  the  Magyars. 

Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Hungary  ;  meeting  of  the 
Constituent  Diet  (5  July);  the  new  Hungarian  Constitution  ; 
influence  of  Kossuth  ;  the  Magyars  issue  oppressive  decrees 
against  the  Slavs  and  Roumanians  in  Croatia,  Slavonia,  the 
Banat  of  Temesvar  and  Transylvania  ;  insurrections  in  these 
districts  against  the  Magyars  ;  at  the  demand  of  the  Diet  the 


—  52  — 

Emperor  disgraces  Jellachich  ;  the  Emperor  enters  into 
negotiations  with  the  Tsar  Nicholas,  who  occupies  the  Dan- 
ubian  provinces. 

After  the  news  of  the  victory  of  Custozza,  the  Emperor 
resolves  to  act  more  firmly  against  Hungary  ;  Jellachich  re- 
instated as  Ban  of  Croatia  (3  Sept.);  the  Diet  prepares  to 
resist ;  the  Palatine  of  Hungary,  the  Archduke  Stephen,  re- 
fuses to  obey  the  Diet  and  escapes  to  Vienna  ;  murder  of 
I^amberg  at  Pesth  (27  Sept.);  the  Emperor  declares  the 
Hungarian  Constituent  Diet  dissolved,  and  orders  Jellachich 
to  invade  Hungary  ;  Kossuth  appointed  Dictator  of  Hungary. 

Proceedings  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Vienna  ;  dis- 
may felt  at  the  advance  of  the  Hungarian  army  ;  third  in- 
surrection m  Vienna  (6  Oct. ) ;  the  Emperor  directs  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  leave  Vienna  and  to 
assemble  at  Kremsier  ;  only  the  Slavs  deputies  obey  ;  the  Oer- 
man  deputies  remain  in  Vienna  to  form  a  provisional  govern- 
ment ;  they  negotiate  with  the  German  parliament  at  Frank- 
fort, which  recognizes  them,  and  sends  Robert  Blum  and  two 
other  deputies  to  their  assistance  ;  Windischgratz  bombards 
Vienna  (31  Aug.)  conquers  the  city,  establishes  martial 
law  and  shoots  Robert  Blum  ;  wrath  of  the  Parliament  of 
Frankfort. 

Schwarzenberg  appointed  minister  (21  Nov.);  abdication 
of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  in  favor  of  his  nephew  Francis 
Joseph  (2  Dec.) 

Vigorous  policy  of  Schwarzenberg  ;  Windischgratz  and 
Jellachich  occupy  Pesth  (5  Jan.,  1849);  Kossuth  and  the 
Diet  withdraw ;  formation  of  Hungarian  armies,  placed 
under  the  command  of  Dombrovski,  Bem,  and  Gorgei  ;  the 
Hungarian  armies  re-occupy  Pesth. 

Schwarzenberg  dissolves  the  Diet  of  Kremsier  (4  Mch.), 
and  promises  a  Unitary  Constitution  to  the  Austrian  Empire  ; 
Kossuth  and  the  Diet  declare  the  independence  of  Hungary 
(14  Apr.). 

The  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  requests  the  assistance  of  the 
Tsar  Nicholas ;   a  Russian  army   under  Paskevitch  enters 


i^tr,j-  Cft^-^:^k\  dco  u^i-A\:^U%  jMi^d<A4'i'K(^e4jS'0i^<i , 


—  53  — 

Hungary  (May)  ;  the  armies  under  Paskevitch,  Haynaw, 
Nugent  and  Jellachich  defeat  the  Hungarians  and  drive  them 
towards  the  Turkish  frontier  ;  resignation  of  Kossuth,  who 
escapes  into  Turkey  (ii  Aug.);  capitulation  of  Gorgei  (13 
Aug.);  surrender  of  Klapka  at  Komorn  (2  Oct.);  end  of  the 
armed  resistance  of  the  Hinigarians. 

The  German  pohcy  of  Schwarzenberg  ;  his  attitude  to- 
wards the  ParHament  of  Frankfort  ;  he  prevents  Frederick 
William  IV  of  Prussia  from  accepting  the  Imperial  throne 
offered  to  him  by  the  Parliament ;  he  claims  the  right  of 
Austria  to  be  treated  as  a  constituent  part  of  Germany. 

Authorities :  Balleydier,  Histoire  des  Revolutions  de  rEmpire  de 
I'Autriche,  Maurice,  The  Revolutionary  Movement  of  1848-49  in  Italy, 
Austria  and  Hungary,  Pillersdorf,  Riickblick  auf  die  Politische  Be- 
wegung  in  QBsterreicb  in  den  Jahren  1848  und  1849,  Ficgiielmont, 
Aufklarungen  uber  die  Zeit  voni  20  Marz  bis  zuni  4  Mai  1848,  Frobel, 
Briefe  iiber  die  Wiener  Oktober-Revolution  niit  Notizen  iiber  die 
Ivetzten  Tage  Robert  Blums,  Auerbach,  Tagebuch  aus  Wien,  Hubner, 
Une  Annee  de  ma  Vie,  Hetfert,  Geschichte  Q^slerreich  vom  Ausgange 
des  Wiener  Oktober-Aufstandes,  Berger,  Felix  Fiirst  zu  Schwarzen- 
berg, Windischgrdiz,  Einer  Lebens-vSkizze ;  aus  den  Papieren  eines 
Zeit-genossen  der  Siurmjahre  1848  und  1849,  Vranyi  and  Chassin, 
Histoire  Politique  de  la  Revolution  de  Hongrie  en  1847-49,  Bury,  Sou- 
venirs et  Recits  des  Campagnes  d'Autriche,  Martm,  Guerre  de  Hon- 
grie en  1848  et  1849,  Gorgei,  Mein  Leben  und  Wirken  in  Ungarn, 
Klapka,  Der  Nalionalkreig  in  Ungarn  und  Siebenbergen,  of  which 
there  is  an  English  translation,  and  Kossuth,  Memoirs, 


LKCTURE  XV. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1! 


IN  GERMANY. 


Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  February  in  Germany  ;  general 
development  of  the  desire  for  popular  government  in 
Western  Germany  ;  the  states  upon  the  Rhine  and  in  the 
former  kingdom  of  Westphalia  were  especially  forward  in 


—  54  — 

this  direction  ;  there  had  been  numerous  riots  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Hesse- Cassel  and  Brunswick  ;  as  in  Italj^  the 
national  spirit  and  the  democratic  movement  were  sometimes 
in  harmony  and  sometimes  opposed  to  each  other  ;  one 
section  of  advocates  of  German  unity  looked  to  Prussia  to 
lead  them  ;  the  other,  which  was  more  democratic  hoped  for 
an  independent  and  possibly  republican  German  nation. 

Both  the  national  and  the  democratic  spirit  were  most 
evident  in  the  smaller  states  and  in  Rhenish  Prussia  ;  but 
they  were  also  developed  to  some  extent  in  the  South  Ger- 
man states  of  Bavaria,  under  King  Louis  I,  of  Wurtemberg, 
under  King  William  I,  and  of  Baden,  under  the  Grand 
Duke  Charles  Leopold,  while  in  Hanover,  under  Ernest  I, 
they  were  especially  developed. 

The  share  of  the  German  Universities  in  promoting  the 
national  and  liberal  spirit  ;  the  dismissal  of  Gervinus, 
Dahlmann,  Ewald  and  the  two  Grimms,  from  their  chairs  at 
Gottingen,  for  protesting  against  the  abolition  of  the  Han- 
overian constitution  by  Ernest  I,  in  1837. 

The  first  effect  of  the  Revolution  of  February  was  seen  in 
risings  in  the  great  cities,  similar  to  those  which  occurred  in 
Paris  and  in  Vienna  ;  the  most  important  of  the  risings  were 
in  Berlin  and  in  Munich. 

The  first  insurrection  in  Berlin  (15-19  Mch.)  ;  Frederick 
William  IV  gives  way  before  the  popular  feeling,  sends  his 
brother  and  heir,  Prince  William,  who  was  suspected  of  opposi- 
tion to  popular  wishes,  away  to  England,  convokes  the  States- 
General,  and  summons  a  Constituent  Assembly  to  draw  up 
a  constitution  for  Prussia. 

Insurrection  in  Munich  against  King  Louis  I,  who  is 
accused  of  showing  too  much  favor  to  his  mistress,  Lola 
Montes  ;  he  abdicates  the  throne  (20  Mch.)  in  favor  of  his 
son  Maximilian  Joseph  II,  w^ho  promises  reforms. 

A  group  of  German  patriots  and  unionists  meet  at  Heidel- 
berg (5  Mch. )  and  summon  a  Vor-Parlament,  which  assembles 
at  Frankfort  (31  Mch. )  ;  this  Assembly  convokes  a  Constituent 
Parliament,  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage  by  the   whole 


I 


55  — 


of  Germany,  which  should  organize  a  federal  German 
•government  under  a  monarch  ;  it  was  resolved  that  the 
decisions  of  this  Constituent  Parliament  should  be  soveriegn, 
and  not  subjected  to  the  control  of  the  Federal  Diet. 

The  Federal  Diet,  as  established  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  withdraws  its  decrees  of  1832- 1834  controlling  state 
representative  governments  and  then  ceases  to  oppose  the 
new  movement. 

In  the  face  of  the  strength  of  the  revolutionary  movement, 
the  German  Princes  permit  the  elections  to  the  new  Parlia- 
ment. 

Meeting  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort  (18  May)  ; 
it  elects  Heinrich  von  Gagern  as  its  president  ;  it  elects 
the  Archduke  John  of  Austria  as  Vicar  of  the  Em- 
pire (28  June)  ;  he  takes  office  (12  July),  dissolves  the 
Federal  Diet,  and  appoints  Schmerling  his  chief  minister  ; 
the  Parliament  of  Frankfort,  with  long  debates,  draws  up  a 
German  Constitution  ;  the  un-democratic  nature  of  this  Con- 
stitution causes  republican  risings  in  many  of  the  cities  of 
Germany  and  general  uneasiness. 

The  position  in  Prussia  ;  Frederick  William  IV  takes  ad- 
vantage of  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Denmark  to  stand  for- 
ward as  the  defender  of  German  interests. 

Death  of  Christian  VIII  of  Denmark  and  accession  of 
Frederick  VII  (20  Jan.  1848)  ;  insurrection  in  Denmark 
(18  Mch.)  ;  the  king  promises  to  summon  the  Consiituent 
Assembly  by  universal  suffrage  to  draw  up  a  Constitution 
which  should  unify  Denmark  and  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig 
and  Holstein  in  spite  of  the  latter  being  parts  of  the  German 
Confederation  ;  wrath  in  Germany  at  this  news  ;  the  Duke 
of  Augustenburg  sets  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition 
in  the  two  duchies  ;  Prussia  with  the  sanction  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Frankfort,  invades  the  duchies  (6  Apr.)  and  had  al- 
most conquered  the  whole  of  Denmark  when  the  great  powers 
intervened  and  insist  on  the  signature  of  the  armistice  of  Mal- 
moe  (26  Aug.). 

Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  though  he  showed  him- 


-  56  — 

self  by  his  conduct  in  Denmark  in  favor  of  German  interests, 
also  showed  himself  the  enemy  of  democracy  ;  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort,  he  sent  Prussian  troops 
to  that  city  to  put  down  a  republican  insurrection  (i8  Sept.) 
and  then,  also  at  their  request,  put  down  democratic  risings 
throughout  the  Rhenish  territories. 

Second  insurrection  in  Berlin  (Nov.,  1848);  the  king  dis- 
solves the  Prussian  Constituent  Assembly  which  had  shown 
in  the  Junker  party  a  strong  minority  opposed  to  democratic 
ideas,  he  declares  Berlin  in  a  state  of  siege,  appoints  Bran- 
denberg  and  Manteuffel  his  ministers,  and  issues  of  his  own 
authority  a  new  constitution  for  Prussia  giving  a  moderate 
amount  of  representative  government  (5  Dec,  1848). 

Ivater  history  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort ;  Gagern 
succeeds  Schmerling  as  chief  minister  (Dec,  1848)  ;  comple- 
tion of  the  new  German  Constitution  with  two  chambers, 
the  Volkhaus  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  the  Staaten- 
haus  chosen  by  the  parliaments  of  the  different  states,  recog- 
nizing no  direct  representation  of  the  German  princes, 
establishing  parliamentary  government,  and  only  giving  to 
the  supreme  executive  authority  a  suspensive  veto. 

The  question  of  the  admission  of  Austria  with  her  non- 
German  populations,  as  part  of  the  new  German  Empire  ; 
it  is  resolved  that  Austria  shall  be  completely  excluded  (14 
Jan.,  1849);  it  is  decided  to  offer  the  imperial  crown  to 
Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  (28  Mar.);  he  declines  to 
accept  unless  invited  by  the  princes  of  Germany,  and  eventu- 
ally, under  the  influence  of  Schwarzenberg,  refuses  uncon- 
ditionally. • 

Indignation  of  Schwarzenberg  at  the  Decree  of  14  Jan- 
uary ;  he  withdraws  the  Austrian  deputies  from  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Frankfort. 

Last  days  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort ;  Gagern  resigns 
office  (8  May),  and  with  his  followers  forms  a  secession  par- 
liament ;  Prussia  withdraws  its  deputies  ;  the  Parliament,  re- 
duced to  105  members,  is  forced  to  leave  Frankfort  (30  May) ; 
it  meets  at  Stuttgart  and  is  eventually  broken  up  by  the  King 
of  Wurtemberg  (19  June). 


Ccc^iS^  ^  /V^   OU'  f  *^-*^  Ix^ciC^i  ^  f^f^H 


—  57  — 

Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  lends  troops  to  the  Kings 
of  Saxony  and  Hanover  to  establish  order  in  their  dominions  ; 
under  the  command  of  Prince  William  of  Prussia  order  is 
also  reestablished  by  Prussian  soldiers  irt  Baden  and  along 
the  Rhine. 

Continuation  of  the  Danish  war  ;  Frederick  VII  of  Den- 
mark grants  a  liberal  constitution  (5  June,  1849)  ;  the 
Danes  make  a  gallant  struggle  against  the  Prussians  ;  con- 
clusion of  peace  (2  July,  1850);  it  is  eventually  arranged  that 
the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  shall  be  garrisoned 
by  a  joint  force  of  Austrians  and  Prussians,  and  that  their 
fate  shall  be  decided  b}^  a  conference  of  the  great  powers. 

Result  of  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Germa- 
ny ;  entire  failure  both  of  the  democratic  party  and  of  the 
supporters  of  the  parliamentary  system  ;  postponement  of 
the  unity  of  Germany. 

Authorities  :  There  are  several  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Par- 
liament of  Frankfort,  of  which  the  most  complete  is  Wigard;  S\.&vlo- 
graphischen  Bericht,  9  vols,  ;  see  also  Duncker,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Deutschen  Reichsversammlung  in  Frankfort,  Raumer,  Briefe  aus 
Frankfurt  und  Paris,  Biedermann,  Erinnerungen  aus  der  Paulskirche» 
Ranke,  Politische  Denkschriften  aus  den  Jahren  1848-1851,  in  his 
Werke,  vols.  xLix-i,,  Deym,  Graf  Deym  und  die  Oesterreischische 
Frage  in  der  Paulskirche,  Becker,  Die  Reaktion  in  Deutschland  gegen 
die  Revolution  von  Y^^^'^von  Sybel,  Die  Begriindung  des  Deutschen 
Reiches,  vols,  i,  11,  von  Moltke,  Geschichte  des  Krieges'gegen  Dane- 
mark,  1848-49,  Bunsen,  Memoirs,  Malet,  Journal,  and  Bismarck, 
Reden. 


LECTURE    XVI 


EUROPE  AFTER  THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF   1848. 

The  institutions  of  the  Second  Empire  in  France  ;  relations 
of  the  government  to  the  Council  of  State,  the  Senate  and  the 
Legislative  Body  ;  while  granting  the  widest  extension  of  the 
franchise  for  electing  the  Legislative  Body,  the  administration 


—  58  — 

systematically  interferes  to  promote  the  election  of  govern- 
ment candidates. 

Napoleon  III  and  his  ministers  ;  the  Bonapartists  and 
some  of  the  partisans  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  rallied  to  him, 
but  he  has  to  face  the  opposition  of  the  Legitimists  and  the 
Republicans  ;  he  is  unfortunate  in  the  selection  of  ministers 
and  has  to  make  use  of  men  of  doubtful  honesty  in  the  work 
of  administration ;  the  influence  of  the  Due  de  Morny, 
Persigny,  Rouher,  and  Maupas. 

Parliamentary  opposition  during  the  Second  Empire  ; 
Thiers  ;  exile  or  deportation  of  the  leading  Republicans. 

Internal  policy  of  Napoleon  III ;  he  professes,  owing  to 
his  selection  by  plebiscite,  to  represent  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people,  and  stands  forth  as  the  opponent  of  bourgeois  or 
middle  class  politics  ;  he  exploits  the  wealth  of  France  in  ex- 
travagant buildings  and  public  works  ;  Haussmann  rebuilds 
Paris  ;  corruption  of  the  administration  ;  Napoleon  III  at- 
tempts to  blind  the  people  by  a  successful  and  vigorous  for- 
eign policy. 

Foreign  policy  of  Napoleon  III  ;  though  he  declares  the 
Empire  to  mean  peace,  he  really  desired  war,  in  order  to  es- 
tablish himself  firmly  at  home  and  abroad  ;  excellence  of  the 
army,  trained  in  the  Algerian  wars  ;  Napoleon's  attachment 
to  the  idea  of  nationality  ;  his  views  with  regard  to  Italy. 

Attitude  of  the  Great  Powers  towards  the  Second  Empire  : 
England,  hoping  for  the  assistance  of  France  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Eastern  Question,  at  once  recognizes  him  as  Em- 
peror ;  the  Tsar  Nicholas  recognizes  him  in  an  insulting 
fashion,  and  is  followed  by  Austria  and  Prussia  ;  Napoleon's 
first  foreign  ministers  ;  Drouyn  de  lyhuys  and  Walewski. 

Being  unable  to  obtain  the  hand  of  a  foreign  princess, 
Napoleon  III  marries  Eugenie  de  Montijo,  Comtess^  de  Teba, 
(29  Jan.,  1853). 

Influence  exercised  by  Prussia  in  Germany  after  her  sup- 
pression of  the  revolutionary  movement  ;  Frederick  William 
IV  hopes  to  exclude  Austria  and  to  be  chosen  Emperor  by 
the  princes  of  Germany  ;  the  League  of  the  Three  Kings — 


—  59  — 

Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Hanover ;  scheme  of  a  Restricted 
Union  ;  Pj'ussia  prepares  a  vScheme  for  a  united  Germany 
under  her  leadership  to  be  submitted  to  a  revived  German 
ParHament  at  Erfurt  and  to  the  German  princes  ;  only  the 
petty  princes  accept  the  Prussian  scheme. 

Austria,  having  put  down  all  rebellion  and  supported  by 
Russia,  resolves  to  intervene ;  the  Archduke  John  resigns 
his  authority  as  Vicar  of  the  Empire  to  a  committee  of  four, 
appointed  half  by  Austria  and  half  by  Prussia  (20  Dec. ,  1849). 

Beust's  scheme  of  a  Middle  Germany  ;  treaty  of  alliance 
made  between  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg,  (27  Feb., 
1850). 

The  Parliament  of  Erfurt  (29  Mar. -29  Apr.  1850);  it  is 
only  attended  by  Prussia  and  representatives  of  the  petty 
princes  ;  part  played  by  Bismarck  ;  the  Parliament  refuses  to 
accept  the  Prussian  scheme ;  and  so  does  the  College  of 
Princes,  which  met  at  Berlin  (10  May). 

Growing  influence  of  Austria  in  German  affairs  under  the 
ministry  of  Schwarzenberg  ;  ad  interim  revival  of  the  Diet 
of  the  Germanic  Confederation  or  Bundestag,  which  under- 
takes the  settlement  of  the  disturbances  in  Schleswig-Hols- 
tein  and  Hesse- Cassel ;  opposition  of  Prussia  ;  approach  of 
war  ;  the  Prussian  and  the  German  federal  troops  supported 
by  Austria  face  each  other  in  Hesse- Cassel ;  the  Tsar  Nicho- 
las intervenes  and  threatens  to  attack  whichever  side  begins 
war. 

Frederick  William  IV  gives  way  ;  Manteuffel  appointed 
chief  Prussian  Minister  ;  the  Convention  of  Olmutz  (29 
Nov.,  1850)  ;  Prussia  apologises;  restoration  of  the  Bun- 
destag (15  May,  1 851)  ;  Bismarck  appointed  Prussian  rep- 
resentative at  Frankfort. 

Negotiations  for  the  renewal  of  the  Zollverein ;  Austria 
endeavors  to  enter  the  Union  ;  opposition  of  Prussia  ;  the 
Steuerverein  declares  its  readiness  to  enter  the  Zollverein  (7 
Sept.,  1851);  reconstitution  of  the  Zollverein  on  this  basis 
with  Austria  excluded  (10  Mar.,  1853). 

General  reaction  in  Germany  ;  most  of  the  German  princes 


—  6o  — 

withdraw  or  modify  the  Constitutions  they  had  granted  in 
1848  ;  the  Bundestag  repudiates  the  Grundrechte  decreed 
b}^  the  ParHament  of  Frankfort  (23  Aug.,  1851). 

The  reaction  in  Prussia  ;  repressive  administration  of  Man- 
teuffel  ;  Prince  WilHam  commences  to  reorganize  the  army. 

The  reaction  in  Austria ;  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  with- 
draws the  Constitution  of  4  March,  1849,  (31  Dec,  1851); 
death  of  Schwarzenburg  (5  April,  1852);  appointment  of 
Buol-Schauenstein  as  chief  Austrian  minister. 

Settlement  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question  ;  Frederick 
VII  of  Denmark  issues  a  unitary  constitution  for  all  his  do- 
minions ;  Prince  Christian  of  Gliicksburg  recognized  as  heir  to 
the  throne  of  Denmark  by  the  Conference  of  London  (8 
May,  1852). 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Holland ;  the 
reign  of  William  II  (1840-49);  he  is  succeeded  by  William 
III  (17  Mar.,  1849);  the  parliamentary  Constitution  is  re- 
modeled in  a  more  liberal  sense  ;  administration  of  Thor- 
becke. 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Belgium  ;  excite- 
ment caused  by  the  news  of  the  revolution  of  February  ; 
Leopold  I  evades  a  republican  movement  by  skilful  policy  ; 
his  ability  as  a  parliamentary  sovereign. 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  England  ;  the 
Chartists  ;  results  of  the  abolition  of  the  Corn-laws. 

Authorities  :  For  the  general  history  of  this  period  see  Rothan. 
Iv'Europe  etravenement  du  Second  Empire,  Z>^^zW^«r,  Histoire  diplo- 
matique de  r Europe,  and  Viel-Castel,  Memoirs  ;  for  the  Second  Em- 
pire, Delord,  Histoire  du  Second  Empire,  Jerrold,  Life  of  Napoleon 
III,  Harcourt,  Les  quatre  ministeres  de  M.  Drouyu  de  Lhuys,  Maicgny, 
Souvenirs  of  the  Second  Empire,  Falloux .  Memoirs  d'nn  royaliste,  and 
Thiers,  Discours  parlementaires  ;  for  Germany,  see  Berger,  Felix, 
Fiirst  von  Schv^arzenberg,  Bunsen,  Memoirs,  Beiist,  Memoirs,  Lowe, 
Life  of  Prince  Bismarck,  Bismarck,  Gesammelte  Werke,  and  Politische 
Reden,  Hahn,  Fiirst  Bismarck,  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck,  and  Simon, 
Histoire  du  Prince  de  Bismarck  ;  and  for  English  foreign  policy  Mar- 
tin, Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,  Balling  and  Ashley,  Lil'e  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  Walpole,  Life  of  Lord  John  Russell,  and  Malmesbury, 
Memoirs  of  an  ex-Minister. 


—  6i  — 
LECTURE  XVII. 


THE  CRIMEAN  WAR. 

The  history  of  the  Eastern  Question  from  the  settlement 
of  the  crisis  in  1841. 

England  and  France  protest  against  the  pressure  placed 
upon  the  Turks  by  Russia  and  Austria  to  surrender  Polish 
and  Hungarian  fugitives ;  an  English  fleet  enters  the 
Dardanelles  (1849). 

England's  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  independence 
of  Turkey  ;  the  Tsar  Nicholas  proposes  to  divide  the 
territories  of  the  "  Sick  Man  "  with  England. 

The  attitude  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  towards  the  Turks  ; 
consistency  of  his  policy  since  the  Treaties  of  Adrianople 
and  Unkiar  Skelessi  ;  he  occupies  the  Danubian  Provinces  in 
1848,  but  at  the  request  of  the  powers  withdraws  behind  the 
Preuth  (185 1 ). 

The  Tsar  Nicholas  believes  the  time  propitious  for  the 
final  overthrow  of  the  Turks  ;  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria  is 
bound  to  him  by  gratitude  for  his  assistance  in  1849,  and 
almost  dependent  on  him  ;  Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia 
is  his  brother-in-law  and  desirous  of  obtaining  his  help  to 
establish  his  power  in  Germany  ;  England  cannot  fight 
without  allies  and  may  be  induced  to  share  the  spoil,  while 
Napoleon  III  is  distrusted  by  the  European  powers,  and 
the  strength  of  his  position  in  France  doubtful. 

The  condition  of  Turkey  ;  reforms  attempted  by  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Med j id. 

Disputed  questions  likely  to  lead  to  war ;  the  difficulty 
about  Montenegro  ;  the  quarrel  with  France  about  the  holy 
places  in  Palestine ;  Conversations  of  Nicholas  with  the 
English  ambassador.  Sir  George  Hamilton  Seymour. 

Mission  of  Menshikov  to  Constantinople  in  1853  ; 
Nicholas  demands  to  be  recognized  as  official  protector  of 
the  Greek  Christians  in  the  Turkish  dominions  ;  the  Russian 
ultimatums  of  5  May  and  31    May  ;  Nicholas'  Note  to  the 


—  62  — 

powers  (ii  June)  ;  the  Russians  occupy  the  Danubian 
Provinces  (July)  ;  the  English  and  French  fleets  enter  the 
Dardanelles  (Sept.). 

The  Turks  declare  war  against  Russia  (4  Oct.);  destruc- 
tion of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  (30  Nov.)  ;  the  English 
and  French  fleets  undertake  the  protection  of  Constantinople 
(27  Dec). 

England  and  France  sign  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Turkey 
(13  Mar.,  1854)  and  declare  war  against  Russia;  alliance 
vsigned  between  England  and  France  (10  Apr.). 

The  attitude  of  the  German  powers  ;  tortuous  policy  of 
Austria  and  Prussia. 

Gallant  defence  of  SilivStria  by  the  Turks  (May,  1854)  ; 
the  Russians  evacuate  the  Danubian  Provinces  ;  English  and 
French  armies  under  Raglan  and  Saint-Arnaud  land  at 
Varna. 

Austria  occupies  the  Danubian  Provinces ;  the  difficulty  felt 
by  the  Allies  in  efl^ectively  attacking  iCussia  while  Austria 
refuses  to  declare  war  ;  indignation  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  and 
of  the  Allies  at  the  conduct  of  Austria  ;  Francis  Joseph  kept 
in  check  by  the  attitude  of  Prussia  and  the  German  Con- 
federation ;  the  Vienna  Notes  (8  Aug.). 

The  campaign  in  the  Crimea  ;  battles  of  the  Alma 
(20  Sept.),  Balaklava  (25  Oct.),  and  Inkerman  (5  Nov.); 
siege  of  Sevastopol  ;  defence  of  the  city  by  Todtleben  ; 
sufferings  of  the  allied  armies  during  the  siege. 

The  EnglivSh  and  French  fleets  in  the  Baltic  under  Sir 
Charles  Napier  and  Parseval-Deschenes  ;  capture  of  Bomar- 
sund  (16  Aug.). 

Continued  vacillation  of  Austria. 

Death  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  (2  Mar.,  1855)  ;  accession  of 
Alexander  II. 

Campaign  of  1855  before  Sevastopol  ;  attack  on  the  Redan 
and  the  Mamelon  (7  June)  and  failure  to  capture  the 
Malakov ;  death  of  Lord  Raglan  (28  June)  ;  Victor 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  joins  the  Allies  (26  June),  and 
sends  an  army  under  Ea Marmora  to  the  Crimea  ;  battle  of 
the  Chernaia  (16  Aug.)  ;  capture  of  the  Malakov  (8  Sept.). 


-63- 

Campalgn  of  1855  in  the  Baltic  ;  the  KngHsh  and  French 
bombard  Sveaborg  and  Helsingfors  (7-1 1  Aug.). 

Campaign  of  1855  In  Armenia  ;  gallant  defence  of  Kars  ; 
its  surrender  (28  Nov.)- 

The  Tsar  Alexander  II  negotiates  for  peace  ;  exhaustion 
of  Russia. 

Congress  of  Paris  for  the  settlement  of  terms  of  peace  ; 
meeting  of  the  Congress  (25  Feb.,  856)  ;  plenipotentiaries 
present  were  :  for  France,  Walewski  and  Bourqueney,  for 
England,  Clarendon  and  Cowley,  for  Russia,  Orlov  and 
Brunnow,  for  Austria,  Buol  and  Hiibner,  for  Sardinia, 
Cavour  and  Vallamarina,  and  for  Turkey,  Ali  Pacha  and 
Djeniil  Eifendi  ;  the  Prussian  representatives,  Manteuffel 
and  Hatzfeldt,  not  admitted  till  18  March. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (30  Mar.)  the  independence  and 
territorial  integrity  of  Turkey  was  recognized,  the  Black  Sea 
neutralized,  and  the  Danube  declared  a  free  river  ;  the 
Danubian  Principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were 
kept  separate  but  given  entire  local  self-government  under 
their  own  princes,  with  national  armies  and  free  constitutions 
guaranteed  by  the  powers,  but  under  the  suzerainty  of 
Turkey  ;  Servia  receives  the  same  advantages  but  a  Turkish 
garrison  is  maintained  in  Belgrade  and  in  three  other  cities. 

By  the  Declaration  of  Paris  (16  Apr.)  privateering  is 
forbidden,  neutral  goods,  even  when  carried  in  the  ships  of 
belligerents,  are  protected,  and  blockades  are  recognized  only 
when  effective. 

Before  the  Congress  broke  up  Cavour  brought  forw^ard  the 
condition  of  Italy,  and  the  proceedings  of  Ferdinand  II, 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  against  his  subjects  were  con- 
demned. 

The  most  conspicuous  results  of  the  Congress  of  Paris 
were  the  isolation  of  Austria  and  the  favorable  attitude  of 
the  powers  towards  Sardinia. 

Authorities  :  Kinglake,  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  its  Origin  and 
account  of  its  Progress  to  the  death  of  Lord  Raglan,  Hamley,  The 
Story  of  the  campaign  of  Sebastopol,  Russell,  The  British  Expedition 


-64  — 

to  the  Crimea,  Sandwith,  Narrative  of  the  siege  of  Kars,  Forgade, 
Histoire  des  causes  de  la  guerre  d'Orient,  Rousset,  Histoire  de  la 
guerre  de  Crim^e,  Rothan^  I^a  Prusse  et  son  ^oi  pendant  la  guerre  de 
Crim^e,  and  Gejfcken,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Orientalischen  Krieges. 


LECTURE  XVIII. 


THE   UNITY  OF   ITAI.Y. 

Condition  of  Italy  after  the  revolutionary  movement  of 
1848 ;  cruel  government  of  Ferdinand  II,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  ;  reactionary  government  of  Pope  Pius  IX,  the  Grand 
Duke  I/eopold  II  of  Tuscany,  Dtike  Francis  V  of  Modena, 
and  Duke  Charles  III  of  Parma  ;  assassination  of  Charles 
III  of  Parma  (26  Mch.,  1834),  and  accession  of  Robert  I; 
arbitrary  military  government  of  the  Austrians  in  lyom- 
bardy  and  Venetia. 

The  only  constitutional,  parliamentary  and  moderate  gov- 
ernment in  Italy  was  that  of  Sardinia  ;  character  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  I ;  Cavour  becomes  chief  minister  of  Sardinia ; 
his  sagacious  policy  ;  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Cavour  hope  to 
accomplish  the  unity  of  Italy  under  the  constitutional  gov- 
ernment of  the  House  of  Savoy. 

Progress  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy  ;  it  is 
mainly  republican  and  democratic,  and  looks  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  Italian  Republic  ;  opposite  points  of  view  of 
Cavour  and  Mazzini ;  the  former  wishes  to  accomplish  the 
unity  of  Italy  by  policy,  with  the  countenance  and  assistance 
of  Europe,  the  latter  by  means  of  popular  insurrection  ; 
Mazzini's  attempt  to  raise  an  insurrection  in  Genoa   (June, 

1857). 

The  Austrians  continue  to  occupy  Parma,  Modena  and  the 
lyCgations,  while  the  French  occupy  Rome  since  1849. 

PoHtical  effect  obtained  by  Cavour  in  joining  the  Anglo- 


l/*t)3^a4«,    17»»    icUi'dt   Si'Ft<^a*l^  e^il/^di^t^  ki^eA/lo/iS'l-i 


-65- 

French  alliance  against  Russia  in  1855,  and  in  sending  an 
army  to  the  Crimea  ;  he  thus  obtains  the  right  to  be  present 
at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  to  lay  the  claims  of  Italy  be- 
fore the  great  powers. 

Interest  taken  in  England  and  in  France  in  the  cause  of 
Italian  unity  ;  indignation  at  the  cruelties  of  King  Bomba  ; 
conspiracies  formed,  and  money  obtained  ;  the  work  of  the 
secret  societies  and  spread  of  democratic  and  unitary 
principles. 

Napoleon  III  takes  into  consideration  the  possibility  of 
assisting  the  Italian  cause-;  his  sympathy  with  the  idea  of 
nationality  ;  his  scheme  for  the  creation  of  an  Italian  con- 
federation of  the  Italian  Princes  under  the  leadership  of  the 
Pope  and  the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  attempt  of  Orsini  on  the 
life  of  Napoleon  (14  Jan.,  1858). 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  Europe  in  1858  favors  the  policy 
of  Napoleon  III  and  Cavour .;  in  Prussia  Prince  William  had 
been  declared  regent  owing  to  the  insanity  of  Frederick 
William  IV  (Oct.,  1857).;  the  new  regent  hates  Austria  and 
is  ready  to  be  on  friendly  terms  with  France ;  the  Tsar 
Alexander  II  is  also  friendly  with  France;  which  seconds 
his  ideas  with  regard  to  the  Danubian  principalities; 
Charles  Cousa  elected  Prince  of  Moldavia  (7  Jan.,  1859),  and 
of  Wallachia  (5  Feb.).;  Milosch  Obrenovitch  overthrows 
Alexander  Karageorgevitch,  and  becomes  Prince  of  Servia 
(12  Jan.,  1859);  England,  though  less  friendly  with  France 
than  during  the  Crimean  War,  is  too  much  occupied  with  the 
suppression  of  Sepoy  Mutiny  in  India  to  wish  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  Europe  ;  Austria,  the  power  most  opposed 
to  Italian  reform  and  unity,  is  therefore  isolated. 

Napoleon  III  and  Cavour  agree  at  Plombieres  (20  July, 
1858),  that  Sardinia  shall  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France  in 
return  for  assistance  against  Austria  in  Italy. 

The  relations  between  Sardinia  and  Austria,;  Austria  de- 
clares war  (26  Apr.,  1859);  Napoleon  III  declares  his  inten- 
tion of  aiding  Sardinia. 

The  campaign  of  1859  in  Italy  ;    the  French  defeat  the 


—  66  — 

Austrians  at  Montebello  (20  May)  and  at  Magenta  (4  June); 
Napoleon  III  and  Victor  Emmanuel  enter  Milan  (8  June); 
Napoleon  appeals  to  the  Italians  to  unite  for  the  freedom  of 
their  country. 

General  insurrection  in  Italy  ;  the  Grand  Duke  lycopold  is 
driven  from  Florence  (April);  Duke  Robert  I  from  Parma 
(May);  and  Duke  Francis'V  from  Modena  (June);  Francis 
II  succeeds  as  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (22  May),  and  is 
prevented  from  aiding  the  Austrians  by  insurrections  ;  the 
Austrians  withdraw  from  the  Legations  ;  provisional  govern- 
ments formed  at  Florence,  Modena  and  Bologna  ;  Cavour 
resigns  in  order  to  be  more  free  to  persuade  the  Italian  in- 
surgents to  unite  with  Sardinia  (13  July). 

The  French  defeat  the  Austrians  at  Solferino  (24  June); 
Napoleon  III  startled  at  the  spread  of  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  Italy,  and  afraid  of  the  establishment  of  a 
strongly  unified  monarchy,  instead  of  an  Italian  Federation 
makes  an  armistice  with  Austria  (8  July). 

By  the  treaty  of  Villafranca  (12  July),  Austria  makes 
peace  with  France  and  cedes  Lombardy,  but  not  Venetia  to 
Napoleon  III;  eventually  (24  Mch.,  i860,)  Napoleon  III 
cedes  Lombardy  to  Victor  Emmanuel  in  exchange  for  Savoy 
and  Nice. 

Causes  of  the  treaty  of  Villafranca  ;  both  Austria  and 
France  are  afraid  of  the  Prince  Regent  of  Prussia  who  mo- 
bilizes the  Prussian  army. 

Progress  of  the  movement  for  amalgamation  with  Sar- 
dinia in  Italy  ;  Tuscany,  the  Legations,  Romagna,  and  the 
Duchies  of  Parma  and  Modena  vote  for  union  with  Sardinia 
(Aug.  Sept.);  Buoncampagni's  government  of  Tuscany  ; 
the  central  Italian  provinces  elect  the  Prince  of  Carignan  as 
regent  (7  Nov.);  Garibaldi  resigns  the  command  of  their 
army. 

Napoleon  III  appeals  for  a  conference  of  the  great  powers 
to  settle  the  affairs  of  Italy  ;  England  formally  opposes  ; 
Palmerston,  who  had  become  prime  minister  in  June,  de- 
clares for  non-intervention  and  that  the  central  Italian  states 


"-  67  - 

had  a  right  to  decide  on  their  own  government,  and  demands 
that  the  French  should  evacuate  Rome. 

Victor  Emmanuel  accepts  the  union  of  Tuscany  and  the 
Legations  with  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  (22  Mch.,  i860). 

Garibaldi  lands  in  Sicily  with  a  body  of  followers  (5  Apr. , 
i860);  his  movement  is  entirely  independent;  he  dislikes 
Cavour,  and  is  an  adherent  of  republicanism  rather  than  of 
the  House  of  Savoy  ;  Garibaldi  conquers  all  Sicily  by  the 
end  of  June  ;  Francis  II,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  re-issues 
the  constitution  which  his  father  had  granted  in  1848,  and 
afterwards  had  withdrawn  (30  June);  Garibaldi  crosses  to 
the  mainland,  conquers  Calabria  and  occupies  Naples  (7 
Sept.);  Francis  II  escapes  to  Gaeta  ;  Mazzini  joins  Gari- 
baldi, and  projects  the  establishment  of  an  Italian  Republic. 

Action  of  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Cavour  at  this  juncture  ; 
they  represent  themselves  as  forced  by  circumstances  to  in- 
tervene in  the  affairs  of  vsouthern  Italy  ;  they  are  encouraged 
by  England  ;  wrath  of  the  Pope,  who  excommunicates  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel ;  Cialdini,  with  a  Sardinian  army,  defeats  the 
Papal  troops  at  Castelfiardo  ( 18  Sept.),  occupies  Ancona  and 
the  Marches,  avoids  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter  and  enters 
Neapolitan  territory. 

The  Parliament  of  Turin,  consisting  of  deputies  from  all 
northern  Italy  authorize  Victor  Emmanuel  to  unite  the 
Marches,  Naples  and  Sicily  with  the  Sardinian  dominions 
(2  Oct.);  Victor  Emmanuel  proceeds  to  Naples  ;  patriotic 
conduct  of  Garibaldi ;  the  Marches,  Naples  and  Sicily  vote 
for  union  with  northern  Italy  (21  Oct.,  i860). 

Surrender  of  Gaeta  (13  Feb.,  1861). 

Meeting  of  the  first  Italian  Parliament  at  Turin  (18  Feb.); 
Victor  Emmanuel  declared  King  of  Italy. 

Italy  thus  formed  into  a  United  Kingdom  within  eighteen 
months  of  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  only  districts  not  ruled 
by  the  House  of  Savoy  being  Venetia,  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  Rome,  with  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  garri- 
soned by  French  troops. 

Causes   of  this  startling  success  ;  the  ability  of  Cavour  ; 


—  68  — 

formation  of  Italy  into  a  limited  monarchy  under  the  House 
of  Savoy. 

Death  of  Cavour  (6  June,  1861). 

Authorities  :  Cantu,  Delia  Indipendenza  Italiana,  Ideville.  journaf 
d'un  Diplomat  en  Italie  1859-1862,  Mazade,  Le  Comte  de  Cavour,  Bi- 
anchiy  Storia  documentata  della  diplomazia  Europeain  Italia,  Rattazzi, 
Rattazzi  et  son  temps,  Zeller,  Pie  IX  et  Victor  Emmanuel.  Garibaldi, 
Memoirs,  Mazzini,  Works,  Godkin,  Life  of  Victor  Kmnianud,/;^W/£r7j^-A^^^^ 
"JicftiA  Correspondence  of  Cavour  with  Madame  de  Circourt,'-t!'^fz^^/Ir7  Discorsi 
parlamentari,  {ito4  Lettere,  D' Azeglio,  Souvenirs, ^Biancki,  La  poli- 
tique du  Comte  CaniUlje^e  Cavour^  Mario,  Garibaldi  e  i  suoi  Tempi, 
and  Bazancou^^r'^JAStoire  de  la  guei-re  d' Italie. 

I^BCTURB    XIX. 


THE  OVERTHROW  OF  AUSTRIA. 

Position  of  the  great  powers  towards  each  other  after  the 
formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  restless  policy  of  Napoleon  III  ;  continuance  of  the 
alliance  with  England  but  on  less  cordial  terms  ;  the  joint 
expedition  to  China  (i860);  French  interference  in  Syria 
(i860)  ;  the  French  expedition  to  Mexico  (1862)  ;  election 
of  the  Archduke  Maximilian  as  Emperor  of  Mexico  (1864)  ; 
disastrous  result  of  the  French  interference  in  Mexico  ( 1866) . 

Development  of  the  Eastern  Question  ;  friendship  between 
Napoleon  III  and  Alexander  II  ;  union  of  the  provinces  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  into  the  Principality  of  Roumania 
(1861)  ;  death  of  Sultan  Abdul  Medjid  and  accession  of 
Abdul  Aziz  (25  June,  1861)  ;  overthrow  of  Prince  Charles 
Couza  (1865)  ;  election  of  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern 
as  Prince  of  Roumania  (25  Mar.,  1866). 

Revolution  in  Greece;  overthrow  of  King  Otho  (Oct., 
1862)  ;  election  of  Prince  George  of  Denmark  as  King  of 
the  Hellenes  (30  Mar.,  1863)  ;  England  cedes  the  Ionian 
Islands  to  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 


S&itcJUc     .-ii^l'irC^  ^  ^  tii^rti^Jx'^  cU  /Sh  e^  Si'c'Cc 


—  69  — 

The  position  in  Italy  ;  the  ministries  of  Ricasoli  and 
Rattazzi ;  longing  of  the  Italians  for  Rome  and  Venice  ; 
negotiations  with  France  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
garrison  from  Rome  ;  Garibaldi  makes  an  attempt  on  Rome  ; 
he  is  defeated  at  Aspromonte  (29  Aug.,  1862)  ;  ministry  of 
L<i  Marmora  (1864)  ;  he  negotiates  with  Prussia. 

The  policy  of  Tsar  Alexander  II  ;  he  emancipates  the 
Russian  serfs  (5  Mar.,  1861)  ;  outbreak  of  insurrection  in 
Russian  Poland  (15  Jan.,  1863)  ;  England,  Austria,  and 
France  make  a  joint  representation  in  favor  of  the  Poles 
(17  Jan.,  1863)  ;  indignation  of  the  Tsar  ;  Prussia  offers  to 
assist  Russia  in  suppressing  the  insurrection  ;  gratitude  of 
Alexander. 

The  internal  policy  of  Austria  ;  the  ministry  of  Rechberg  ; 
the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  promulgates  a  unitary  constitu- 
tion (20  Oct.,  i860)  ;  the  Hungarians  and  Venetians  refuse 
to  send  deputies  to  the  new  parliament. 

Growing  strength  of  Prussia ;  accession  of  William  I 
(2  Jan.,  1861);  his  character  and  previous  career;  his 
military  instincts  ;  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  army  by 
von  Roon  and  of  the  general  staff  by  von  Moltke  ;  King 
William's  belief  in  the  unity  of  Germany  and  in  the  mission 
of  Prussia  to  dominate  Germany. 

Position  of  parties  in  the  Prussian  I^andtag ;  Bismarck 
appointed  chief  minister  (24  Sept.,  1862);  he  is  unable  to 
obtain  a  parliamentary  majority,  but  raises  taxes  and  governs 
without  it  ;  character  of  Bismarck's  policy  ;  he  works  for 
the  isolation  of 'Austria  and  the  destruction  of  her  influence 
in  Germany  as  the  first  step  towards  German  unity. 

The  weakness  of  the  Bundestag,  or  Federal  Diet ;  the 
schemes  of  the  middle  states,  headed  by  Saxon 3'-,  Hanover, 
Bavaria,  for  independence  of  both  Austria  and  Prussia. 

The  Schleswig-PIolstein  question  ;  its  position  at  the  death 
of  Frederick  VII  of  Denmark  (15  Nov.,  1863);  the  Duke 
of  Augustenburg  puts  forward  His  claim  to  the  duchies  ;  at 
the  request  of  the  Bundestag,  Hanover  and  Saxony  occupy 
Holstein  and  Lauenburg  (21  Dec,  1863),  and  Prussia  and 


—  70  — 

Austria  occupy  Schleswig  (i  Feb.,  1864);  resistance  of  the 
Danes  ;  battles  of  Duppel ;  England  makes  useless  representa- 
tions ;  Christian  IX  of  Denmark  forced  to  yield  ;  by  the 
treaty  of  i  August,  confirmed  30  October,  1864,  he  sur- 
renders the  duchies  to  Prussia  and  Austria. 

The  Bundestag,  led  by  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  demands  that 
the  duchies  should  be  given  up  to  the  Duke  of  Augusten- 
burg  ;  Bismarck  scornfully  refuses  ;  by  the  Convention  of 
Gastein  (14  Aug.,  1865)  Prussia  and  Austria  agree  to  a  con- 
dominium in  the  duchies  ;  Austria  occupies  Holstein,  while 
Prussia  occupies  Schleswig  and  purchases  lyauenburg. 

Bismarck  prepares  for  war  with  Austria  ;  the  friendliness 
of  Russia  towards  the  Prussian  schemes  ;  Bismarck's  nego- 
tiations with  Napoleon  III  to  whom  he  offers  Belgium  and 
lyuxemburg  in  return  for  neutrality. 

Bismarck  signs  an  offensive  and  defensive  treaty  with  Ital}^ 
(8  Apr.,  1866),  and  promises  to  attack  Austria  within  three 
months. 

Bismarck  refuses  to  submit  tlie  question  of  the  duchies  to 
the  Bundestag  (9  Apr.,  1866),  and  attacks  Austria's  admin- 
istration of  Holstein  as  favoring  the  pretentions  of  the  Duke 
of  Augustenburg. 

Outbreak  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War  ;  a  Prussian  army 
under  Manteuff el  attacks  the  Austrians  in  Holstein  (8  June). 

Bismarck  proposes  to  the  Bundestag  that  a  German  parlia- 
ment shall  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  that  Austria  vshall 
be  excluded  from  Germany,  and  that  the  forces  of  Germany 
shall  be  divided  into  two  armies,  of  which  the  northern  shall 
be  conmianded  by  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  southern,  by 
the  King  of  Bavaria. 

Bismarck  declares  the  Pact  of  Federation  broken  (14 
June)  ;  Prussian  troops  occupy  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse- 
Cassel  ;  Manteuffel  prevents  the  South  German  states  from 
lending  effective  aid  to  Austria. 

The  Campaign  of  1866  in  Italy  ;  the  Italian  army  invades 
Venetia  and  is  defeated  by  the  Archduke  Albert  at  Custozza 
(24  June);  the  Italian  fleet  defeated  by  Tegetthoff  at  I^issa 


k 


—  71  — 

(2o  July);  preliminaries  of  peace  signed  between  Austria 
and  Italy  (lo  Aug.),  and  definitive  peace  (3  Oct.),  by  which 
Austria  cedes  Venetia  to  Italy. 

The  Campaign  of  1866  in  Bohemia  ;  von  Moltke's  strate- 
gical combinations  ;  junction  of  the  armies  of  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Prussia  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  ;  the  Aus- 
trians  under  Benedek  utterly  defeated  at  Sadowa,  or  Konig- 
gratz  (3  July);  armistice  signed  22  July,  followed  by  the 
Preliminaries  of  Nikolsberg  (26  July),  and  the  Treaty  of 
Prague  (23  Aug.). 

By  this  treaty  Austria  loses  no  territory  except  Venetia, 
but  she  agrees  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion, and  promises  to  make  no  opposition  to  a  new  constitu- 
tion of  Germany  in  which  she  shall  have  no  part. 

Prussia's  chief  advantages  from  the  war  were  not  gained 
from  Austria  but  by  the  annexation  of  the  following  states  ; 
Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse- Homburg,  Nassau,  the  city  of 
Frankfort,  and  Schleswig-Holstein,  which  gave  her  an  un- 
contested superiority  in  Germany  ;  she  makes  favorable 
treaties  of  peace  with  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and 
Hesse- Darmstadt . 

When  the  great  blow  had  been  struck  and  it  was  too  late 
for  him  to  interfere  effectively,  Napoleon  III,  by  his  ambassa- 
dor Benedetti,  asks  for  Rhenish  Bavaria  and  Rhenish  Hesse, 
as  his  reward  for  non-interference  ;  William  I  and  Bismarck 
refuse  and  by  making  known  the  request  rouse  German  feel- 
ing against  France. 

Results  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War  on  the  position  of 
European  politics. 

Authorities  :  Debidoiir,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  I'Burope,  1814-78, 
Lefevre,  Histoire  de  rinterventioii  fran9aise  au  Mexique,  Masseras, 
Un  Essai  d'Empire  au  Mexique,  Gaiclot,  L' Empire  de  Maximilien, 
Zeller,  Pie  IX  et  Victor  Emmanuel,  Garibaldi,  Memoirs,  Martin, 
Pologue  et  Muscovie,  Batsch,  La  Question  polonaise  dans  la  Russie 
occideutale,  Araminski,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  polonaise,'^Z^r(9jv- 
Beaulieu,  Un  Homme  d'etat  russe,  Nicholas  Milutiue,  Von  Sybel,  Die 
Begriindung  des  Deutscheu  Reiches  durch  Willielui  I,  Denkwiirdig- 
keiten  aus  dem  Ivcben  des  Grafen  von  Roon,  vo?t  Moltke,  Gesammelte 


Schriften  und  Deukwiirdigkeiten,  Muller,  Graf  Moltke,  Hahn,  Furst 
Bismarck,  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck,  Busch,  Our  Chancellor,  Lowe,  Life  of 
Bismarck,  Simon,  Histoire  du  prince  de  Bismarck,  Bismarck,  Gesam- 
melte  Werke,  Briefe,  Politiscbe  Briefe,  and  Politisclien  Reden,  Beust, 
Memoirs,  Vitzthuinf'St.  Petersburg  and  London,  1852-64,  and  London, 
//"i^/.^/j  Gastein  und  S&(\.oviSi^Lo/tus,  Diplomatic  Reminiscences,  Hansen,  K 
travers  la  diplomatic,  1864-67,  Renouf,  Les  coulisses  de  la  diplomatic, 
Rothan,  La  politique  frangaise  en  1866,  Benedetti,  Ma  mission  en 
Prusse,  Klaczko,  Les  preliminaires  de  Sadowa,  and  Two  Chancellors, 
Bismarck  and  Gortchakoff,  Viel-Castel,  Memoirs,  Gramont,  (pseud. 
Memor. ),  L'Allemagne  nouvelle.  La  Marmora,  Un  peu  plus  de  lumiere 
sur  les  evdnements  militaires  et  politiques  de  I'annee  1S66,  Bonghi, 
L'allianza  prussiana  e  I'acquisto  del  Veneto,  Harcourt,  Les  quatre 
ministeres  de  M.  de  Drouyn  de  IMviy^^Hahn,  Zwei  Jalire  preussisch- 
deutschej^Politik,  1866-67,  Treitschke ,  Zehn  Jahre  Deutscher  Kampfe 
1865-74,  Hozier,  The  Seven  Weeks'  War,  Lecomte,  Guerre  de  la  Prusse 
et  de  ritalie  contre  I'Autriche  et  la  Confederation  germanique,  Borb- 
stddt,  Preussens  Feldziige  gegen  Oesterreich,^y?w^/cw,  Der  Krieg  von 
1866  in  Deutschland  und  Italien,  Fontane,  Der  deutsclie  Krieg  von 
1866,  and  the  official  accounts  of  the  War  of  1866  by  the  German 
and  Austrian  general  staffs. 


^kJtiL:!n 


^ 


LECTURE   XX. 


THE  RE-CONSTlTUnON  OF  GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA. 

After  the  signature  of  the  Treat}^  of  Prague,  Prussia  pro- 
pounded a  new  organization  for  Northern  Germany  ;  the 
victories  of  her  armies  and  the  great  preponderance  she  had 
obtained  over  the  other  states  by  the  annexation  of  Hanover, 
etc.,  caused  Bismarck's  plan  to  be  promptly  accepted  by  the 
Northern  States  (8  Feb.,  1867). 

Germany,  north  of  the  Main,  was  formed  into  the  North 
German  Confederation,  which  consisted  of  the  two  king- 
doms of  Prussia  and  Saxony,  the  four  grand  duchies  of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin ,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Saxe- Wei- 
mar, and  Oldenburg,  five  duchies,  seven  principalities,  and 
the  three  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck. 


I 


?  9ifW    2iv^  jiAe    '}^4-tM£icU-jtUx  fi^^'^k 


—  73  — 

The  federal  power  extending  over  foreign  affairs,  the 
army,  coinage,  and  all  matters  not  strictly  provincial,  was 
entrusted  to  the  King  of  Prussia  as  President  of  the  Confed- 
eration, whose  executive  minister  was  the  chancellor  ap- 
pointed by  himself  ;  the  King  of  Prussia  was  also  comman- 
der-in-chief of  the  army  and  navy  ;  Bismarck  appointed 
chancellor. 

The  federal  legislative  authority  was  to  be  administered 
by  the  Federal  Parliament  or  Reichstag,  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  in  proportion  to  population. 

Between  the  President  and  the  Reichstag  was  established 
the  Federal  Council  or  Bundesrath,  consisting  of  forty-three 
members  appoitited  by  the  governments  of  the  different 
states,  Prussia  nominating  seventeen. 

This  constitution  was  accepted  by  the  Constituent  Reich- 
stag (17  April,  1867),  which  voted  taxes  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  army  for  four  years. 

Von  Roon  applies  the  military  organization  of  Prussia  to 
the  whole  of  the  North  German  Confederation. 

The  South  German  states,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Baden, 
and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  maintained  their  independence,  but 
the  Zollverein,  or  Customs-Union,  was  renewed  between 
them  and  the  North  German  Confederation ,  its  affairs  being 
regulated  by  a  Zollparlament. 

The  condition  of  the  Austrian  empire  after  the  Treaty  of 
Prague;  failure  of  the  constitution  granted  in  1861,  owing 
to  the  abstention  of  Hungarian  deputies  ;  the  struggle 
between  the  federalists,  including  the  different  Slavonic 
provinces,  and  the  dualists,  headed  by  Hungary  ;  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  resolves  on  a  dual  constitution  ; 
Beust  appointed  Austrian  chancellor. 

The  Constitution  of  8  February,  1867  ;  the  empire  split 
into  two  parts,  Austria  and  Hungary,  each  having  separate 
parliaments,  ministries,  budgets,  and  complete  internal  au- 
tonomy ;  imperial  foreign  policy,  finance,  and  military  ad- 
ministration carried  on  by  an  imperial  ministry  responsible 
to  a  Reichstag,  consisting  of  delegations  from  the  Austrian 
and  Hungarian  parliaments. 


—  74  — 

Delight  of  the  Magyars  at  the  Dual  Constitution,  which 
was  mainly  the  work  of  Deak  ;  their  attitude  towards  sub- 
ject populations  and  compromise  with  Croatia. 

Wrath  of  the  Slavonic  populations  at  the  Dual  Constitu- 
tion ;  the  Slavs  of  the  north,  headed  by  the  Czechs,  being 
thus  separated  from  the  Slovaks,  Slavonians,  Croatians,  and 
Servians  in  the  south. 

Russia  encourages  the  Pan-Slavist  idea  ;  and  the  Slavs  of 
Austria  look  to  Russia  for  help. 

The  condition  of  Russia  ;  liberal  policy  of  the  Tsar  Alex- 
ander and  his  ministers,  except  with  regard  to  Poland. 

Russia's  advance  in  Central  Asia  ;  conquest  of  Samarcand 
(1866),  and  Bokhara  (1868). 

Condition  of  the  Eastern  Question  ;  growth  of  Roumanian 
claims  for  independence  under  Prince  Charles  ;  the  Turks 
withdraw  their  garrisons  from  Belgrade  and  the  other  Ser- 
vian fortresses  (18  April,  1867)  ;  assassination  of  Michael 
Obrenovich  (10  June,  1868),  and  accession  of  Milan  as 
Prince  of  Servia  ;  insurrection  in  Crete  (1866-68). 

Italian  affairs  after  the  Treaty  of  Prague  ;  the  Italians  de- 
mand from  France  the  evacuation  of  Rome,  which  has  a 
French  garrison;  the  garrison  withdrawn  (Dec,  1866); 
Garibaldi  attacks  Rome  (25  Oct.,  1867);  a  French  army 
under  De  Failly  arrives  in  Rome  to  defend  the  Pope  (30  Oct. ) ; 
defeat  of  Garibaldi  at  Mentana  (3 'Nov.). 

Negotiations  of  Napoleon  III  with  Bismarck  ;  his  schemes 
on  Belgium  ;  his  schemes  on  Luxemburg,  which  was  ruled 
by  the  King  of  the  Netherlands  as  a  German  state,  but  had 
not  joined  the  North  German  Confederation  ;  equivocal  posi- 
tion of  Luxemburg  which  is  garrisoned  b}^  Prussia  ;  William 
III  of  the  Netherlands  ready  to  sell  Luxemburg  to  France, 
but  unwilling  to  do  so  without  the  consent  of  Prussia. 

Napoleon  III  appeals  to  Europe  on  the  question  of  Lux- 
emburg ;  a  conference  of  the  great  powers  by  the  Treat^^  of 
London  (11  Ma}^  1867)  direct  that  the  province  shall  be 
evacuated  by  Prussia,  that  the  fortress  shall  be  dismantled, 
and  that  its  neutrality  shall  be  guaranteed  by  Europe. 


—  75  — 

Growing  weakness  and  unpopularity  of  the  Second  Empire 
in  France  ;  effect  of  the  final  failure  of  the  Mexican  expedi- 
tion (1867);  strength  of  the  parliamentary  opposition  under 
Thiers  ;  Napoleon  III  resolves  to  rule  more  in  harmony  with 
popular  feeling  ;  he  grants  a  measure  of  liberty  to  the  press 
(May,  1868),  and  the  right  of  public  meeting  (June,  1868), 
and  eventually  establishes  real  parliamentary  government 
(8  Sept.,  1869). 

Napoleon's  concessions  taken  as  a  confession  of  weakness  ; 
general  hatred  and  contempt  expressed  for  the  Empire  in 
France  ;  the  republican  party  grows  in  strength  and  threatens 
revolution  ;  Gambetta,  elected  deputy  for  Paris  in  1869, 
comes  into  prominence  ;  influence  of  the  "  International,"  a 
democratic  society  of  workingmen  directed  by  Mazzini, 
Kossuth,  and  Ledru-Rollin. 

Napoleon  regards  a  successful  war  as  the  only  means 
practicable  for  restoring  the  authority  of  the  Empire  ;  he  is 
falsely  told  that  the  army  is  efficient  ;  he  resolves  on  war 
with  Prussia  because  Bismarck  had  foiled  his  designs  on 
lyUxemburg  and  he  could  promise  the  French  people  a  restor- 
ation of  the  natural  limits  of  France  ;  he  endeavors  to  ob- 
tain allies  ;  Austria  is  afraid  to  join  him  from  fear  of  Russia 
and  Italy  declines  because  of  the  French  occupation  of 
Rome. 

William  I  and  Bismarck  also  desire  war  with  France  ;  they 
wish  to  incorporate  the  South  German  states  and  to  complete 
German  unity  by  a  great  national  triumph. 

Napoleon  III  forms  a  liberal  ministry  under  Emile  Ollivier 
(4  Jan.,  1870);  he  appeals  to  a  plebiscite  and  by  7,836,434 
votes  to  1,560,709  France  declares  herself  satisfied  with  the 
Empire  (8  May,  1870). 

The  pretext  for  war  derived  from  the  situation  in  Spain. 

Recent  history  of  Spain  ;  unpopularity  of  Queen  Isabella 
II  ;  domination  of  the  army  and  frequency  of  military  pro- 
nunciamentos  ;  the  second  Carlist  war  (1854-56). 

Repeated  changes  of  ministry  and  alternation  of  power  be- 
tween   Espartero,   Narvaez  and  O'Donnell;   frequent  wars, 


~76- 

with  Morocco  (1859-60),  with  Peru  (1864-66),  wath  San 
Domingo  (1864-65);  state  of  insurrection  in  Cuba. 

After  the  deaths  of  Narvaez  and  O'Donnell,  Isabella  is 
abandoned;  insurrection  of  September,  1868  ;  Isabella  escapes 
to  France  ;  formation  of  a  provisional  government  under 
Serrano,  Prim,  and  Topete. 

Meeting  of  a  constituent  assembly  at  Madrid  (Feb. ,  1869) ; 
it  elects  Serrano  regent  and  declares  in  favor  of  constitutional 
monarchy  ;  candidates  for  the  throne  of  Spain,  Don  Carlos, 
the  Due  de  Montpensier,  and  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha  ;  Prim  suggests  the  candidature  of  a  prince  of 
the  house  of  HohenzoUern  ;  King  William  I  of  Prussia  gives 
permission  for  the  candidature  of  his  relative  Prince  Leopold 
of  HohenzoUern  (May,  1870). 

Napoleon  III  resolves  to  make  out  of  this  candidature  a 
casus  belli  with  Prussia  ;  Benedetti  sent  to  Ems  to  demand 
an  explanation  of  King  William  ;  his  interviews  with  the 
King  (9-1 1  July);  candidature  of  Prince  lycopold  for  the 
throne  of  Spain  withdrawn  (12  July);  Benedetti 's  instruc- 
tions to  demand  yet  more  from  the  King  of  Prussia  ;  the 
King  leaves  Ems  (13  July;;  Bismarck  prepares  for  war; 
mobilization  of  the  German  annies. 

Excitement  in  Germany  at  the  behavior  of  France  ;  the 
South  German  states  prepare  to  assist  the  North  German 
Confederation ;  enthusiasm  felt  at  the  prospect  of  war  with 
France. 

England  endeavors  to  mediate  but  Napoleon  is  bent  upon 
war;  France  declares  war  (17  July);  European  public 
opinion  regards  the  war  as  wanton  and  sympathises  with 
Prussia. 

Authorities  -f^'Von  Sybel,  Die  Begriindung  des  Deutscheii  Reiches 
durch  Wilhelm  I,  Maurenbrecher ,  Griindung  des  Deutschen  Reiches, 
Oncken,  Das  Zeitalter  des  Kaisers  Wilhelm,  William  /,  Polilische  Cor. 
respondenz,  Treitschke ,  Zehn  Jahre  Deutscher  Kampfe,  and  Deutsche 
Geschichte  im  19^^"  Jahrhundert,  Bindiiig,  Die  Griindung  des  Nord- 
deutschen  Bundes,  Bulle,  Geschichte  deszweiten  Kaiserreiches  und  des 
Konigreiches  Italien,  Delord,  Histoire  du  Second  Empire,  Rothan,  La 
politique  fran5aise  en  1866,  L'AfFaire  de  lyuxembourg,  and  La  France 


U\cU^  in^ki  iOdJ^i  -<^Mv^f*^,  he^H^n^^lii^ 


VWv  Hyhw  di  CH^tpi  >itj>i^  i^  M'l^CL  lUi^vMnc 


..eiitvc:^  I'Wi'^^h^'^'v^/^'^^]'' 


--  77  — 

et  sa  politique  exterieure  en  1867,  Thiers,  Discours  parlenientaires, 
Gramont  (pseud.  Memor.),  La  France  et  la  Prusse  avaut  la  guerre, 
Ollivier,  Menioires,  and  lye  19 Janvier;  papiers  et  correspondance  de 
la  famille  imperiale,  Beust,  Memo'ws^Benedetti,  Ma  Mission  en  Prusse. 
Hahfi,  Der  Krieg  Deutschlands  gegen  Frankreich  und  die  Griindung 
des  Deutscben  Kaiserreiclis,  Sorel,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  guerre 
franco-alleniande,  Poujade,  L,a  diploniatie  du  Second  Empire  et  celle 
du  quatre  Septembre  1870,  Hubbard.  Histoire  contemporaine 
d'Espagne,  Mazade,  Les  revolutions  de  TEspagne  contemporaine, 
^Laveleye,  La  Prusse  et  TAutricbe  depuis  Sadowa,  Loftus,  Diploma- 
tic Reminiscences,  and  many  of  the  books  cited  under  Lecture  XIX' 
including  those  on  Bismarck. 


}\lt.LihM^ 


LECTURE  XXI. 


THE  FRANCO-GERM  \N  WAR. 

Attitude  of  the  powers  of  Europe  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Fran  CO -Germ  an  War  ;  England  declares  neutrality  (19  July, 
1870),  and  English  public  opinion  is  roused  against  France 
by  the  publication  of  Napoleon  Ill's  propositions  to  Bis- 
marck for  seizing  Belgium  ;  Russia  declares  neutrality  (23 
July),  and  threatens  to  attack  Austria  if  that  power  should 
join  France  ;  Austria  therefore  remains  neutral ;  Italy  re- 
fuses to  join  France  because  of  the  French  occupation  of 
Rome  ;  Denmark  alone  prepares  to  aid  Napoleon  if  the 
French  armies  won  some  immediate  success ;  formation  of 
the  League  of  Neutrals  (Aug.). 

Enthusiasm  for  the  war  in  Germany  ;  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Prussia  takes  command  of  the  contingents  of  the  South 
German  states. 

Excitement  in  Paris  ;  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III  leaves  to 
take  command  of  the  army  (28  July). 

Rapid  mobilization  of  the  German  army  ;  Moltke's  plan 
of  campaign  ;  inferiority  of  the  French  military  administra- 
tion ;  change  in  the  French  plan  of  campaign  owing  to  the 
adhesion  of  the  South  German  states  to  Prussia. 


-78- 

First  campaign  of  1870;  the  skirmish  at  Saarbriick  (2  Aug.); 
battle  of  Wissembourg  (4  Aug.) ;  the  Crown  Prince  of  Panssia 
utterly  defeats  Mac  Mahon  at  Worth,  or  Froschwiller,  and 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  defeats  Frossard  at  Spicheren,  or 
Forbach  (6  Aug.);  Moltke,  having  thus  broken  the  French 
line  forms  the  siege  of  Strasbourg  and  advances  against  the 
main  French  army  under  Bazaine  ;  Bazaine  defeated  at 
Horny  (14  Aug.),  at  Mars-La-Tour,  orVionville  (16  Aug.  , 
and  at  Gravelotte,  or  Saint-Privat  (18  Aug. );  Bazaine's  army 
shut  up  in  Metz  and  besieged  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 

Excitement  caused  in  Paris  by  the  news  of  the  French  de- 
feats ;  the  Empress  Eugenie,  who  had  been  appointed  regent, 
dismisses  Ollivier,  and  appoints  a  new  ministry  under  Mon- 
tauban,  Comte  de  Palikao. 

The  caQipaign  of  Sedan  ;  the  Army  of  Chalons  under  Mac 
Mahon,  and  accompanied  by  the  Emperor  marches  to  relieve 
Metz  ;  it  is  utterly  defeated  by  the  main  German  army  at 
Sedan  (i  Sept.);  the  French  army  capitulates  (2  Sept.),  and 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  III  is  sent  a  prisoner  into  Germany. 

Revolution  of  4  September  in  Paris  ;  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment is  overthrown  ;  the  deputies  for  Paris  in  the  I^egislative 
Body,  with  the  exception  of  Thiers,  form  themselves  into 
the  Government  of  National  Defence,  with  General  Trochu, 
Commandant  of  Paris,  as  their  president  ;  this  provisional 
government  forms  a  ministry  consisting  of  Jules  Favre, 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Gambetta,  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior, General  Ee  Flo,  Admiral  Fourichon,  Cremieux,  Ernest 
Picard,  Jules  Simon,  Dorian,  and  Magnan  ;  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  National  Defence  were,  Emmanuel  Arago,  Jules 
Ferry,  Garnier-Pages,  Eugene  Pelletan,  Glas-Bizoin  and 
Henri  Rochefort. 

The  first  measures  of  the  new  French  government ;  its 
mistakes  ;  it  does  not  immediately  summon  a  constituent  as- 
sembly ;  it  persists  in  remaining  in  Paris  ;  it  sends  Thiers  to 
endeavor  to  obtain  allies. 

Thiers'  journey  ;  his  reception  in  England,  Russia,  Aus- 
tria and  Italy  ;  the  French  garrison  withdrawn  from  Rome  ; 


—  79  — 

the  Italians  take  Rome,  (20  Sept.),  and  declare  it  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Continued  success  of  the  German  armies  in  France  ;  the 
siege  of  Paris  formed  (19  Sept.);  surrender  of  Toul  (23 
Sept.),  and  of  Strasbourg  (28  Sept.);  the  Germans  advance 
south  and  take  Orleans  (11  Oct.);  Bismarck's  negotiations 
with  Bazaine  ;  his  attitude  towards  the  Government  of  Na- 
tional Defence  ;  surrender  of  Bazaine  and  of  Metz  (27  Oct.). 

Gambetta  leaves  Paris  and  organizes  a  branch  of  the  gov- 
ernment at  Tours  ;  his  extraordinary  energy  and  success  in 
calling  France  to  arms  ;  he  advocates  war  a  outrance  ;  he 
organizes  the  Army  of  the  Loire  ;  French  success  at  Coulmiers 
(9  Nov.);  the  Germans  evacuate  Orleans  ;  the  Army  of  the 
Loire  advances  to  the  relief  of  Paris  ;  critical  position  of  the 
German  besieging  army  ;  sortie  of  Trochu  from  Paris  and 
battle  of  Villiers-Champigny. 

Prince  Frederick  Charles  breaks  the  Army  of  the  Loire  in 
two,  and  reoccupies  Orleans  ;  the  branch  government  retires 
from  Tours  to  Bordeaux  (9  Dec);  surrender  of  Verdun  (8 
Nov.);  Thionville  (14  Nov.),  and  Montmedy  (14  Dec);  bril- 
liant defence  of  Belfort. 

Effect  of  the  German  victories  upon  German  popular 
opinion  ;  the  South  German  States  enter  the  North  German 
Confederation  (15-25  Nov.);  the  Reichstag  offers  the  king 
of  Prussia  the  title  of  Emperor  ;  he  declines  to  accept  it 
until  it  is  offered  to  him  by  the  German  Princes  ;  this  is  done 
and  William  I  of  Prussia  is  proclaimed  German  Emperor  at 
Versailles  (18  Jan.,  1871). 

Russia  takes  advantage  of  the  war  and  of  the  existence  of 
a  pacific  ministry  in  England  to  declare  the  abrogation  of 
the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1856  ;  conference  of  the 
powers  upon  this  subject  at  London  (17  Jan.);  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  modified  so  as  to  permit  Russia  to  maintain  a  fleet  in 
the  Black  Sea  (13  Mar.);  causes  of  PVance  not  being  present 
at  the  conference  ;  the  policy  of  Bismarck  with  regard  to  the 
Government  of  National  Defence. 

Final  campaign  of  1871  ;  the  Germans  commence  the  bom- 


—  lio  — 

bardment  of  Paris  (5  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Army  of  the 
North  under  Faidherbe  ;  battle  of  Pont  de  Noyelles  (23  Dec. , 
1870);  Faidherbe' s  success  at  Bapaume  (3  Jan.,  1871);  sur- 
render of  Mezieres  (2  Jan.)  ;  and  of  Peronne  (10  Jan.); 
Faidherbe  utterly  defeated  by  Von  Gob  en  at  Saint  Quentin 
(19  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Second  Army  of  the  lyoire  under 
Chanzy  ;  he  is  defeated  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  at  Le 
Mans  (14-16  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Army  of  the  East 
under  Bourbaki ;  he  is  defeated  at  Hericourt  (17  Jan.),. and 
driven  into  Switzerland  ;  last  sorti  from  Paris  under  Ducrot; 
battle  qf  Buzenval  (19  Jan.);  Paris  forced  to  surrender  (28 
Jan.). 

The  armistice  of  28  Jan.,  187 1  ;  its  terms  ;  its  blunders  ; 
conduct  of  Jules  Favre  ;  tactical  mistakes  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  National  Defence  ;  Gambetta  resigns  his  authority 
in  the  provinces  .;  elections  held  for  the  meeting  of  a  con- 
stituent assembly. 

Meeting  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Bordeaux  (12 
Feb.)  ;  Thiers  is  elected  chief  of  the  executive  power  ;  he 
signs  preliminaries  of  peace  with  Germany  (22  Feb.)  ;  the 
treaty  accepted  by  the  Assembly  (3  March)  ;  by  it  France 
cedes  Alsace  and  part  of  lyorraine,  including  Metz,  to  Ger- 
many, and  promises  to  pay  a  w^ar  indemnity  of  five  milliards 
of  francs  ;  a  definitive  treaty  signed  at  Frankfort  (10  May, 

1871). 

The  Constituent  Assembly  declares  the  overthrow  of  the 
Empire  and  •  the  proclamation  of  the  third  French  Republic 
(i  March,  1871). 

Formation  of  the  Government  of  the  Commune  (18  March, 
187 1);  its  leaders  and  their  doctrines ;  Thiers  concentrates  an 
army  against  the  Commune  ;  the  government  of  the  Com- 
mune resists  and  shoots  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  and  other 
hostages  :  the  war  with  the  Commune  ;  MacMahon  conquers 
the  Commune  and  occupies  Paris  (21-28  May)  ;  burning  of 
the  Tuileries  and  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 

The  most  important  results  of  the  Franco-German  war 
were,  the  completion  of  the  unity  of  Germany  and  the  over- 


—  8i  — 

throw  of  the  second  empire  in  France  ;  but  the  cession  of 
Alsace  and  lyorraine.  more  than  the  result  of  the  war,  raised 
inextinguishable  hatred  between  the  two  nations. 

Authorities  :  Sorel,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  guerre  Franco- 
Alleniande,  Angeberg,  Recueils  des  Trait^s,  conventions,  etc.,  con- 
ceruant  la  guerre  Franco- Alleniande,  Halui,  Der  Krieg  Deutschlands 
gegen  Frankreich  und  die  Griindung  des  Deutsclien  Kaiserreichs, 
Meding^  De  Sadowa  a  Sedan,  Washburne,  Correspondence  relating  to 
the  Franco-German  War,  and  Recollections  of  a  Minister  to  France 
(1869-77),  Daily  News,  War  Correspondence,  Forbes,  My  experience 
of  the  Franco-German  war,  Russell,  My  diary  during  the  last  great 
war,  Rustow,  The  war  for  the  Rhine  frontier  in  1870,  Borbstadl^  The 
Franco  German  War,  Hooper,  The  Campaign  of  Sedan,  Labou. 
chere,  Diary  of  the  besieged  resident  in  Paris,  Bingham,  Journal  of 
the  Siege  of  Paris,  Bo-zaine,  L'Arm^e  du  l^\\\wiyjarras,  Souvenirs, 
Mazade,  La  guerre  de  France,  and,  Monsieur  Thiers,  Trochu,  1' Em- 
pire et  la  defense  de  Paris,  Chanzy,  Memoires,  Ducrot,  La  defense  de 
Paris,  Rothan,  I'AUemagne  et  I'ltalie,  1870-71,  Hippeau,  Histoire  di- 
plomatique de  la  troisieme  republique  Francaise,  Andldu,  Metz,  Jules 
Favre,  Le  gouvernement  de  la  Defense  nationale,  Jules  Simon,  Me- 
moires, Souvenirs  du  4  septembre,  and  Le  gouvernement  de  M,  Thiers, 
Glas-Bizoin,  Dictature  de  cinq  mois,  Valjrey,  Histoire  de  la  diplo- 
matic du  gouvernement  de  la  Defense  national,  Maquest,  La  France  et 
I'Europe  pendant  le  siege  de  Paris,  Buret,  Histoire  de  quatre  ans, 
Busch,  Our  Chancellor,  and  Conversations  of  Prince  Bismarck  during 
the  Franco- German  war,  Moltke,  Geschichte  des  Deutsch-Franzosischen 
Krieges  von  1870-71,  Hanneken,  Bazaine  und  die  Kapitulation  von 
Metz,  Blunie,  Operations  of  the  German  armies  in  France,  Von  Syb^l, 
Der  Frieden  von  1871^  2A\^Lissagaray„  ;Histoite  de  la  Commune. 


LECTURE   XXII.. 


THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

Condition  of  Germany  after  the  successful  conclusion  of 
the  Franco- Prussian  War ;  enthusiasm  felt  for  a  union 
achieved  on  the  field  of  battle ;  important  effect  of  the  war 
indemnity  paid  by  France  ;  creation  of  a  national  German 


—  82  -- 

coinage  ;  the  reconstitution  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion as  the  German  Empire  ;  the  Bundesrath  increased  by 
six  voices  for  Bavaria,  four  for  Wurtemberg,  two  for  Baden, 
and  two  for  Hesse- Darmstadt  ;  the  Reichstag  increased  by 
the  additional  representatives  of  the  South  German  states, 
chosen  in  the  ratio  of  one  deputy  to  each  one  hundred 
thousand  population. 

In  spite  of  the  triumph  of  national  unity,  particularism 
makes  itself  felt  in  the  Reichstag  ;  though  the  German 
princes  remain  true  to  the  Empire,  the  Polish,  Schleswig, 
and  Hanoverian  deputies  form  separate  and  irreconcilable 
parties,  while  Alsace-Lorraine  refuses  to  elect  any  deputies 
at  all. 

The  administration  of  Alsace-Lorraine  as  a  Reichsland,  or 
territory  of  the  Empire. 

Increased  power  given  to  the  Catholic  Church  in  German 
by  the  absorption  of  the  South  German  states  into  the  Em- 
pire ;  Bismarck's  dislike  of  Ultramontanism,  which  he  re- 
gards as  impairing  the  spirit  of  national  unity  ;  owing  to  the 
strength  of  the  Ultramontane  party  in  the  Reichstag,  Bis- 
marck attacks  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia  only, 
where  the  Protestants  have  a  majority  in  the  Landtag  ;  the 
Kulturkampf  ;  the  May  Laws  (1872),  restraining  the  power 
of  the  Catholic  Church ;  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from 
Prussia  (June,  1872);  attitude  of  Pope  Pius  IX  ;  the  South 
German  states,  and  especially  Bavaria,  protest  against  Bis- 
marck's anti-Catholic  policy. 

The  reorganization  of  France  ;  by  the  policy  of  Thiers 
and  the  financial  skill  of  Pouyer-Quertier,  the  war  indemnity 
is  paid  and  France  finally  evacuated  by  the  German  army 
(March,  1873). 

The  Constituent  Assembly  at  Versailles  ;  the  position  of 
parties ;  the  majority  consivSts  of  monarchists  and  ultra- 
montanes  ;  deliberate  tardiness  shown  in  drawing  up  a  new 
constitution  for  France  ;  the  presidency  of  Thiers  renewed 
until  the  constitution  shall  have  been  completed  (Aug. ,  187 1 ) . 

The  majority  of  the  Assembly,  which  favored  monarchy, 


-83  — 

divided  into  Legitimist,  Orleanist,  and  Bonapartist  parties, 
and  therefore  unable  to  agree  upon  a  king  or  emperor  ; 
meanwhile  the  republican  minority,  led  by  Gambetta,  makes 
way  in  France. 

The  monarchical  majority  in  the  Assembly  forces  Thiers 
to  resign  (24  May,  1873),  and  elects  MacMahon  to  the 
temporary  presidency-  of  the  Republic  ;  the  administration 
of  the  Due  de  Broglie  ;  he  prepares  the  way  for  the  restora- 
tion of  monarchy  by  appointing  anti-republican  prefects  and 
officials  ;  fusion  of  the  Legitimist  and  Orleanist  parties  ;  the 
Comte  de  Paris  recognizes  the  Comte  de  Chambord  as  the 
legitimate  king  ;  regarding  himself  as  next  heir  to  the  throne 
as  the  representative  of  hereditary,  not  of  parliamentary, 
monarchy  (Aug.,  1873)  ;  the  impracticable  character  of  the 
Comte  de  Chambord  ;  he  refuses  to  abandon  the  white  flag 
or  to  make  any  recognition  of  parliamentary  institutions 
(27  Oct.)  ;  the  Due  de  Broglie  and  the  parliamentary  mon- 
archists abandon  the  support  of  Comte  de  Chambord  ;  elec- 
tion of  MacMahon  as  President  of  the  French  Republic  for 
seven  years. 

Completion  of  the  French  Constitution  (25  Feb.,  1875)  ; 
its  conservative  nature  ;  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  ;  the  presidency  to  be  held  for  seven  years  and  the 
president  to  be  elected  not  by  popular  vote,  but  by  the  joint 
ballot  of  the  two  chambers  ;  the  working  of  parliamentary 
government  in  France  ;  frequent  changes  of  ministry,  the 
result  of  the  existence  of  parliamentary  groups  instead  of 
well-defined  parties. 

Condition  of  Spain  ;  election  of  Amadeus,  second  son  of 
Victor  Emanuel  to  be  King  of  Spain  ;  assasination  of  Marshal 
Prim  (30  Dec,  1870);  Amadeus  commences  his  reign  (2 
Jan;,  1871);  Don  Carlos,  grandson  of  the  first  Don  Carlos, 
raises  a  rebellion  in  the  northern  provinces  (1872  ) ;  the  Carlist 
War  not  discouraged  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France, 
owing  to  the  monarchical  character  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly and  its  desire  to  please  the  Comte  de  Chambord  ; 
difficult  position  of  Amadeus  ;  he  resigns  the  throne  of 
Spain. 


—  84  - 

Proclamation  of  a  Spanish  Republic  ;  Emilio  Castelar 
elected  President  ;  General  Pavia  dissolves  the  Cortes  by 
armed  force  (3  Jan.,  1874)  ;  Serrano  assumes  the  presidency  ; 
insurrection  at  Cartagena. 

Pronunciamento  of  Martinez  Campos  (30  Dec,  1874)  ; 
overthrow  of  Serrano  ;  Alfonso  XII,  only  son  of  Queen 
Isabella,  recognized  as  King  of  Spain  ;  suppression  of  the 
Carlist  rebellion. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Bismarck  ;  he  aims  to  prevent  France 
from  obtaining  any  allies  in  Europe  ;  he  remains  on  friendly 
terms  with  Russia,  whose  Tsar,  Alexander  II,  was  the 
nephew  and  friend  of  the  Emperor  William,  but  suspects  the 
Russian  Chancellor,  Gorchakov  ;  being  unwilling  to  trust 
entirely  to  Russia,  he  looks  for  other  allies  ;  England  under 
Gladstone  (1868-74)  refuses  to  interfere  in  continental  poli- 
tics ;  he  therefore  enters  into  close  relations  with  Austria. 

The  position  of  Austria  ;  discontent  of  the  Slavs  with  the 
Dual  Constitution  ;  they  look  to  Russia  for  assistance  ;  there- 
fore, in  spite  of  the  memory  of  Sadowa,  the  Emperor  Fran- 
cis Joseph  is  ready  to  enter  into  alliance  with  the  Emperor 
William  ;  dismissal  of  Beust,  the  enemy  of  Prussia,  and  ap- 
pointment of  Andrassy  as  Austrian  Chancellor  (14  Nov., 
1871). 

Formation  of  the  Dreikaiserbund,  or  Alliance  of  the  Three 
Emperors,  of  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria  (Sept.,  1872)  ; 
comparison  between  the  Dreikaiserbund  and  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance ;  its  aims  :  ( i )  to  maintain  the  status  quo  in  Europe, 
(2)  to  act  in  harmony  on  the  Eastern  Question,  (3)  to  op- 
pose the  progress  of  revolutionary,  socialist,  and  nihilist 
movements. 

Triumphant  position  of  Bismarck  ;  he  becomes  the  Dicta- 
tor of  Europe  as  Metternich  formerly  had  been  ;  characteris- 
tics of  his  diplomacy. 

Authorities  :  Muller,  Kaiser  Wilhelin,  Hahn,  Wilhelm,  der  erste 
Kaiser  des  neuen  Deutscheii  Reiclis,  ►S"/w£>«,  L'Knipereur  Guillaume 
et  son  regne,  Forbes,  WilHam  of  Oermany,  Heigel,  Kouig  I^udwig  II, 
vou  Bayern,  Lowe,  L,ife  of  Bismarck,  Busch,  Our  Chancellor,  Hahn, 


(Jte'i/H.o^  (c^^'^v  <L  KJt^k^^l^- 


—  85  — 

Fiirst  Bismarck,  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck,  Midler,  Reicliskanzler  Fiirst 
Bismarck,  Sifnon,  Histoire  du  prince  de  Bismarck,  Klaczko,  The  Two 
Chancellors,  Mohl,  Das  Deutsche  Staatsrecht,  Whitman,  Germany, 
Hahn,  Geschichte  des  Kulturkampfesin  Preussen,  ►SrA?^//^,  Geschichte 
des  Kulturkampfes  in  Preussen,  Pressense,  La  pojlitigue^religieuse  de 
la  Vxw^^Q^Vhon,  Histoire  de  P  Allemagne  depuisfeadowa,  Jules  Simon,  ^^  ^''a^((l  At 
Le  Gouvernement  de  M.  Thiers,  Mazade,  Monsieur  Thiers,  Hippeau, 
Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  troisieme  republique,  Chaudordy,  La 
France  et  la  suite  de  la  guerre  de  1870-71,  Gambetta,  Discours,  Beust, 
Memoirs,  Houghton,  Origin  of  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in 
Spain,  Valras  Don  Carlos  VII  et  I'Kspagne  Carliste,  and  Gallenga, 
Iberian  Reminiscences. 


LECTURE    XXIII. 


RUSSIA'S  ATTEMPT  TO  SOLVE  THE   EASTERN  QUEvSTION. 

Condition  of  the  Turkish  Empire  during  the  latter  years  of 
the  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz  ;  growing  weakness  of  the  civil  and 
financial  administration  ;  the  pledges  given  after  the  Crimean 
war  for  the  more  tolerant  government  of  the  Christians  brok- 
en ;  relying  on  the  protection  of  the  Western  powers,  all 
reforms  are  refused. 

Attitude  of  the  Sultan  towards  Egypt ;  increased  impor- 
tance of  that  country  to  England  after  the  completion  of  the 
Suez  Canal  (1869)  ;  in  1867  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  is  given 
authority  to  govern  without  reference  to  Constantinople,  and 
to  negotiate  with  foreign  powers  ;  in  1872  succession  by 
primogeniture  in  the  family  of  Mehemet  Ali  is  established. 

Continued  interest  taken  by  Russia  in  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  II,  having  freed  himself  from  the 
humiliating  restrictions  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  187 1,  desires 
to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  Christian  subjects  of  Turkey  ; 
by  pursuing  vigorously  the  classic  policy  of  Russia  he  hopes 
to  counteract  the  growth  of  Nihilism. 

The  progress  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  ;  conquest  of  Khiva 
(1871)  and  Khokand  (1876)  ;  Russia's  intrigues  in  Afkan- 
istan  ;  her  gradual  approach  to  the  frontiers  of  India. 


—  86  — 

Growth  of  the  Panslavic  idea  in  Russia  ;  influence  of 
Katkov. 

Character  and  policy  of  Gorchakov. 

Attitude  of  Europe  towards  the  Eastern  Question  ;  Eng- 
land, where  Disraeli  succeeded  Gladstone  (1874),  is  appre- 
hensive of  Russia's  advance  on  India  and  Constantinople  ; 
purchase  of  the  Khedive's  Suez  Canal  shares  :  Austria's  jeal- 
ousy of  Russia's  interference  of  South  Eastern  Europe,  and 
dislike  of  the  Panslavic  propaganda  ;  France  is  too  much  oc- 
cupied with  internal  disputes  to  interfere  ;  Bismarck  declares 
the  Eastern  Question  ' '  not  worth  the  bones  of  a  Pomeranian 
grenadier. ' ' 

Outbreak  of  insurrection  among  the  Christians  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  (July,  1875)  ;  encouraged  by  Servia  and 
Montenegro  ;  the  great  powers  present  a  joint  note  to  the 
Sultan  (30  Jan.,  1876),  demanding  reforms  and  religious 
liberty  for  the  people  of   Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 

Russia  forbids  the  Turks  to  attack  Servia  or  Montenegro ; 
the  Dreikaiserbund  threatens  the  Turks  with  punishment  if 
reforms  are  not  granted  (11  May,  1876)  ;  England  refuses 
to  act  with  the  other  powers. 

Excitement  among  the  Muhammadan  population  of  Tur- 
key ;  policy  of  Midhat  Pasha  ;  palace,  revolution  (30  May, 
1876)  ;  overthrow  and  subsequent  murder  of  Abdul  Aziz  ; 
Murad  V  proclaimed  Sultan. 

Prince  Milan  of  Servia  declares  war  against  the  Turks 
(30  June,  1876)  ;  the  Servian  army  is  organized  and  com- 
manded by  Russian  officers  under  Chernaiev  ;  Prince  Nicho- 
las of  Montenegro  declares  war  against  the  Turks  (2  July)  ; 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  annex  themselves  to  Servia  and 
Montenegro. 

Excitement  in  Turkey  ;  defeat  of  the  Servians  ;  the  Bul- 
garian massacres  ;  the  great  powers  intervene  in  the  name  of 
humanity. 

Deposition  of  Murad  V,  and  accession  of  Abdul  Hamid  II 
(31  Aug.)  ;  the  Turks  promise  reform,  and  the  creation  of 
a  Turkish  parliament ;  illusory  nature  of  this  step  ;  Ignatiev 


~  87  — 

presents  an  ultimatum  to  the  Sultan  demanding  the  effective 
protection  of  the  Christians  in  Turkey. 

Conference  of  the  great  powers  at  Constantinople  (Dec, 
1876)  ;  the  Turks  refuse  the  demands  made  of  them  ;  over- 
throw of  Midhat  Pasha  (5  Jan.,  1877). 

Both  Russia  and  Turkey  prepare  for  war  ;  military  enthusi- 
asm in  both  countries  ;  peace  signed  between  Servia  and 
Turkey  (i  Mch.,  1877). 

Russia  declares  war  against  the  Turks  (24  Apr.,  1877). 

The  campaign  of  1877  ;  Loris  Melikov  advances  into 
Armenia  and  the  main  Russian  army  under  the  Tzar  crosses 
the  Danube  and  invades  Bulgaria  ;  successes  of  the  Turks  ; 
lyoris  Melikov  retreats,  and  the  main  Russian  army  is 
checked  by  Osman  Pasha  at  Plevna  ;  reinforcement  of  the 
Russian  armies;  Loris  Melikov  takes  Kars  (Nov.),  and 
Todtleben  storms  Plevna  (10  Dec,  1877)  ;  the  Russians  ad- 
vance on  Constantinople  ;  an  English  fleet  enters  the  Darda- 
nelles ;  Convention  of  Adrianople  (30  Jan.,  1878)  ;  conclusion 
of  an  armistice  ;  the  English  fleet  anchors  before  Constan- 
tinople. 

Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (3  Mch.,  1878)  between  Russia 
and  Turkey  ;  the  Turks  agree  to  a  great  increase  of  Rou- 
mania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro,  and  to  the  creation  of  a 
principality  of  Bulgaria  ;  Russia  receives  Kars  and  Batoum 
and  the  retrocession  of  Bessarabia  from  Roumania  ;  by  this 
treaty  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Europe  was  destroyed. 

General  alarm  in  Europe  ;  Austria  protests  against  the  in- 
crease of  the  authority  of  Russia  ;  England,  where  Salisbury 
succeeds  Derby  as  Foreign  Minister  (2  Apr.,  1878),  demands 
that  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  shall  be  submitted  to  a  Con- 
gress of  the  Powers  ;  England  makes  a  secret  convention 
with  the  Turks  (4  June)  by  which  she  receives  Cyprus  and 
the  charge  of  defending  the  dominions  of  Turkey  in  Asia  ; 
Bismarck  declares  himself  ' '  an  honest  broker. ' ' 

The  Congress  of  Berlin  (13  June-13  July,  1878);  the 
representatives  present  were,  for  Germany,  Bismarck,  Wer- 
ther  and  Hohenlohe,  for  Austria,  Andrassy,  Karolyi  and  Hay- 


—  88  — 

merle,  for    Russia,  Gorchakov,  Schuvalov  and    Oubril,  for 
England    Beaconsfield,     Salisbury,    and    Odo    Russell,    for 
France,  Waddington,  Saint-Vallier  and  Desprez,  for  Italy, 
Corti  and  Da  I<aunay,  and  for  Turkey,  Caratheodori  Pasha, 
SaduUali  Bey  and  Mehmet  Ali  Pasha. 

By  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  was 
profoundly  modified  ;  Russia  retained  the  accessions  of  terri- 
tory she  had  received  ;  Ssrvia  and  Roumania  were  made  in- 
dependent kingdoms  and  received  small  additions  of  terri- 
tory ;  Austria  received  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  ;  a  small 
principality  of  Bulgaria  was  created,  and  a  semi-independent 
administration  established  for  Eastern  Roumelia  ;  Greece  re- 
ceived a  small  extension  of  frontier. 

Disgust  of  Alexander  II  and  Gorchakov  at  the  proceedings 
of  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  but  Russia  was  too  weak  to  under- 
take actual  opposition  ;  particular  resentment  felt  by  Alex- 
ander and  Gorchakov  towards  Bismarck,  whom  they  declared 
wanting  in  gratitude  for  the  services  Russia  had  rendered  to 
Germany  in  1866  and  1870;  practical  dissolution  of  the 
Dreikaiserbund,  or  Alliance  of  the  Three  Emperors. 

Authorities  :  Most  of  the  books  cited  under  lyecture  XXII  deal  also 
with  the  period  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  ;  but  see  also  Gallenga,  Two 
Years  of  the  Eastern  Question,  Holland,  The  European  Concert  on 
the  Eastern  Question.  Vambery,  Central  Asia  and  the  Anglo-Russian 
Frontier  Question,  and  The  Coming  Struggle  for  India,  Hellwald,  The 
Russians  in  Central  Asia,  Raivlinson,  England  and  Russia  in  the  East, 
Popowski,  Rival  Powers  in  Central  Asia,  Wyroiiboff,  I/a  Question 
d'Orient  et  le  Traite  de  Berlin,  Le  Faure,  Histoire  de  la  guerre  d'Ori- 
ent,  1877-78,  Farcy,  La  guerre  sur  le  Danube,  1877-78,  Green,  The 
Russo-Turkish  War,  Baker,  The  War  in  Bulgaria,  Williams,  The  Ar- 
menian Campaign,  Daily  Neivs,  War  Correspondence,  1877-78,  Gay, 
Plevna,  the  Sultan  aad  the  Porte,  and  Brunswick,  Le  Traite  de  Berlin. 


Tit  (L,t^^  TuJii^  Uc^^  ii^ . 


—  89  — 
LECTURE  XXIV. 


THE  TRIPLE  ALLIANCE. 

Germany  having  to  fear  the  resentment  of  RiiSvSia,  Bis- 
marck draws  closer  to  Austria,  and  signs  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alUance  with  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  (15  Oct., 
1879)  ;  this  aUiance  is  joined  in  1882  by  Italy,  and  becomes 
the  Triple  Alliance,  which  agreed  to  check  the  desire  of 
France  to  recover  Alsace  and  Lorraine  and  the  ambitions  of 
Russia  in  the  East. 

Internal  policy  of  Bismarck  ;  after  the  death  of  Pope  Pius 
IX  and  the  election  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  Bismarck  softens  the 
application  of  the  May  Laws  and  enters  into  negotiations 
with  the  Papacy  ;  end  of  the  Kulturkampf  (1881). 

Bismarck  and  Socialism^ ;  his  legislation  against  the  Social- 
ists ;  after  the  murder  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II  ( 1 88 1 )  by 
the  Nihilists,  he  forms  once  more  friendly  relations  with 
Russia  ;  the  attitude  of  the  new  Tsar,  Alexander  III ;  Gor- 
chakov  succeeded  by  De  Giers  (1883). 

Until  the  end  of  the  administration  of  Bismarck  the  Triple 
Alliance  is  on  more  or  less  friendly  terms  with  Russia  and 
dominates  Europe  and  keeps  the  peace. 

The  situation  in  France  ;  the  Due  de  Broglie  forms  a  gov- 
ernment (16  May,  1877),  and  makes  another  effort  for  the 
re- establishment  of  the  monarchy;  he  is  overthrown  (14 
Oct. ),  and  from  that  time  the  government  of  France  becomes 
frankly  republican;  resignation  of  MacMahon  (30  Jan., 
1879)  ;  Jules  Grevy  elected  President  of  the  French  Repub- 
lic ;  influence  of  Gambetta  ;  commencement  of  a  struggle 
with  the  Catholic  Church  not  unlike  Bismarck's  Kulturkampf 
(1879-81)  ;  material  prosperity  of  France,  but  increasing 
discredit  of  parliamentary  government. 

Position  in  Italy;  death  of  Victor  Emmanuel  (6  Jan., 
1878)  and  of  Pope  Pius  IX  (7  Feb.,  1878)  ;  accession  of 
King  Humbert  and  election  of  Pope  Leo  XIII ;  financial 
distress  of  Italy. 

Rivalry  of  England  and  France  in  the  Mediterranean  ; 


*       —  90  — 

dual  control  established  over  the  government  of  Egypt, 
which  was  practically  bankrupt  (1878);  deposition  of  the 
Khedive  Ismail  (1879)  ;  France  establishes  a  protectorate 
over  Tunis  (12  May,  1881)  ;  Arabi  Pasha  raises  an  insurrec- 
tion against  the  Khedive  Tewfik  (1881)  ;  England  intervenes, 
bombards  Alexandria,  overthrows  Arabi  Pasha  in  the  battle 
of  Tel-el-Kebir  (13  Sept.,  1882)  and  maintains  a  garrison  in 
Egypt ;  England  defends  Egypt  against  the  Mahdi ;  expedi- 
tion up  the  Nile,  and  death  of  Gordon  Pasha  (1885)  ;  cam- 
paign in  the  Sudan  (1886). 

The  condition  of  Russia  ;  assassination  of  the  Tsar  Alex- 
ander II  by  the  Nihilists  (13  March,  1881)  ;  nature  of  the 
government  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  III  ;  progress  of  Russia 
in  Central  Asia  ;  the  Russians  take  Merv  (1884)  ;  the  affair 
of  Penjdeh  (30  March,  1885)  ;  war  averted  between  England 
and  Russia  ;  the  progress  of  Nihilism. 

The  Eastern  Question  ;  Alexander  of  Battenberg  elected 
Prince  of  Bulgaria  (1879)  ;  union  of  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia  (18  Sept.,  1885);  war  between  Servia  and  Bul- 
garia; victory  of  the  Bulgarians  at  SHvnitza  (Nov.,  1885)  ; 
anger  of  Russia  ;  Alexander  of  Battenberg  deposed  and  re- 
moved from  Bulgaria  (6  Sept.,  1886)  ;  election  of  Ferdinand 
of  Saxe-Coburg  as  Prince  of  Bulgaria  (Aug.,  1887);  King 
Milan  of  Servia  abdicates  (May,  1889)  in  favor  of  his  son 
Alexander. 

Death  of  the  Emperor  William  I  (9  March,  i'888)  ;  death 
of  his  successor,  the  Emperor  Frederick  (15  June,  1888)  ; 
accession  of  the  Emperor  William  II  ;  his  character  and 
policy  ;  he  maintains  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  endeavors  to 
remain  on  friendly  terms  with  Russia. 

Dismissal  of  Bismarck  (1890)  ;  retrospect  of  his  twenty 
years'  dictatorship  over  Europe. 

Attempt  to  form  a  Franco- Russian  alliance  to  counter 
balance  the  Triple  Alliance. 

Authorities  :  It  is  not  possible  to  give  an  adequate  list  of  authorities 
on  the  latest  phase  of  Modern  European  History  ;  reference  may  be 
made  to  several  of  the  books  already  cited,  and  a  general  view  can  be 
found  in  Dilke,  The  Present  Position  of  European  Politics,  published 
in  1887. 


APPENDICES.  • 


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lern; Kings  of  Prus- 
sia, and  after  1851 
also  German  Emp. 

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Bism,arck. 

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Castelar,  President. 
Serrano,  President. 
Alfonso  XII. 

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Landgraves,  after 

1803  Electors,  after 

18 14  Grand  Dukes, 

of  Hesse-Cassel. 

William  IX  (since 
1785)   after    1814 
William  I. 

Merged  in  Kingd'm 
of  Westphalia. 

William  I,  restored. 

William  II. 

(Frederick    Wm., 
Regent. ) 

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Dukes,  after  1803 

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King  Frederick  I 

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Electors,  after  1814 
Kings,  of 
Hanover. 

George   III    (King 
of  Great  Britain) 
f  since  1760.) 

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of  Westphalia. 

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William   IV,  King 
of  Great  Britain. 

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FrederickAugustus 
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